《毕业论文外文翻译-进口玩具的安全消费者保护和世界贸易组织的技术贸易壁垒协定：前景进展和问题.doc》由会员分享，可在线阅读，更多相关《毕业论文外文翻译-进口玩具的安全消费者保护和世界贸易组织的技术贸易壁垒协定：前景进展和问题.doc（11页珍藏版）》请在taowenge.com淘文阁网|工程机械CAD图纸|机械工程制图|CAD装配图下载|SolidWorks_CaTia_CAD_UG_PROE_设计图分享下载上搜索。
1、进口玩具的安全，消费者保护和世界贸易组织的技术贸易壁垒协定：前景，进展和问题全球贸易、人权和进口的安全人类和动物受进口产品感染的风险不应该被过分夸大。受污染的二乙二醇感冒药导致100多人死亡，几十人得病，其中多达21人死亡可能与肝素有关。肝素是一种流行的抗凝剂，它广泛应用于透析和心脏手术中，以达到延缓血液凝块的目的。据美国食品与药品监督管理局(FDA)调查所知，这个主要的抗血凝药物包含一个伪造成份，美国食品与药品监督管理局采用先进的磁场核磁共振成像的测试来让它模拟真正的药物。据了解，美国食品及药品监督管理局发现多达20%的产品的活跃成分是假的。在一个快速全球化的世界中，各国应如何确保进口产品的
2、安全呢？世贸组织成员国能单方面对玩具的制定特点或相关的工艺流程及生产方法采用新条例吗？这些问题是由技术法规和国际贸易法的相关准则以及人权法而产生的。一方面,技术法规和标准既可以作为一种贸易壁垒，同时对消费者产品偏好、质量期望和价格选择产生负面影响。技术法规和标准中有关玩具质量和安全的规定即这些规定并没有歧视性的“法理”或“事实”， 但这些标准和法规在国际之间的差异也有可能造成贸易障碍。假定组成世界贸易组织的153个成员决定创造他们自己的玩具安全法规及标准，对于一个中国玩具制造商来说，他有可能就得面对153种法规，并且还要遵守这些法规及标准，而这样会导致他失去规模经济。在另一方面, 技术法规和标
3、准又让人们越来越认识到健康与安全条例是政府责任的核心。各国政府有主权权利和责任来保护他们的公民免受伤害。A/RES/54/165号决议在1999年通过了，联合国大会指出：“虽然世界趋于全球化，但一个国家所扮演的角色有可能影响人权，促进和保护所有人权是国家的首要责任”。A/RES/54/165号决议的第15条中也强调：“分析全球化对充分享有各项人权的影响是必要的”。其第16条是关于儿童的健康和安全，联合国公约关于儿童权利（CRC）的第3条中规定：“关于儿童的一切行动，不论是由公私社会福利机构、法院、行政当局或立法机构执行，均应以儿童的最大利益为一种首要考虑。”第17条中儿童权利委员会还对每一个孩
4、子的生命权（第6条），健康权（第24条）和“适当年龄孩子休息和闲暇，以及从事游戏和娱乐活动”的权利进行担保。根据儿童权利公约19条的规定:“缔约国应采取一切适当的立法、行政、社会和教育措施，保护儿童在受父母、法定监护人或其他任何负责照管儿童的人的照料时，不致受到任何形式的身心摧残、伤害或凌辱 ，忽视或照料不周，虐待或剥削，包括性侵犯”。总的来说,技术法规和标准涉及了国家主权、国内安全、卫生、人权和自由贸易这些敏感的问题。政策制定者正面临着应如何采取法律和政策来充分地保护公民的权利和福利,而又不至于破坏公民的基本原则的多边贸易体制的挑战。哈佛大学国际发展中心认为：“政府法规或商品的行业标准至少在
5、三个方面影响贸易：首先，他们可以以清楚地定义交易产品的特点、改善兼容性和可用性的方式来方便交易；他们也可以提高国内社会标准，比如公共卫生通过建立最低标准或安全要求规定；最后，他们还可以隐藏保护主义政策”。产品安全，国内管理自主权和世贸组织技术性贸易壁垒协议 政府法规和行业标准制定了一些产品的特性，TBT协定也涵盖了有关玩具的相关生产流程和生产方法。TBT协议将技术法规定义为一个“制定产品特征或相关的工艺和生产方法”的文件，它既包括了适用的行政规定，该规定是强制性的，也包括了专门术语、符号、包装、标志或标签，其要求适用于产品、工艺或生产方法。技术性贸易壁垒协议也适用于技术标准和合格评定，恰如该协
6、议中的附件I所说的。技术性贸易壁垒协议所涵盖的产品范围较广。从本质上讲，所有产品，包括工业和农业产品都受TBT第21条协议规定。然而，采购规格是由第22条协议“政府机构对产品的编制或政府机构消费需求”规定。技术贸易壁垒是尊重国家主权，保障公民健康和安全，确保技术法规对国际贸易的变相贸易壁垒不运作之间的一条连接线。如第六段序言段所示：“任何国家都应采取措施保障出口产品的质量，保护人类健康和安全，保护动植物的生命和健康，保护生态环境，或防止欺诈行为，在此范围内认为是合理的，可以根据本协议规定，而技术贸易壁垒不适用于一系列专制或国家之间的不公平歧视。” 技术性贸易壁垒的协议和尊重国内监督管理自治虽然
7、TBT协定的一些规定似乎限制国内监管自主，但是从该协议的其他规定来看它又保持了国内监管自主权。首先，在第2条第4款规定中表明：“各成员的技术法规是不完全的，应以相关的国际标准为基础”。当相关的囯际标准无效或不合适时这条规定是不适用的。其次，即使一个国际标准存在，各成员没必要完全依照该标准，各成员可以采用这种标准的相关部分。再次，如果成员国所采取的措施是为了挑战另外的成员国，则相关的国际标准将是有效或合理的。在“欧共体 沙丁鱼”中，世贸组织上诉机构认为抱怨国有义务证明被抱怨方违反了技术性贸易壁垒协议第2条第4款中的规定。因此，起诉成员不仅要表明有关国际标准没有被用作挑战法规的依据，还必须表明有关
8、的国际标准对相应成员是一个有效或适当的手段。最后，政府的采购是不在TBT协定中的。技术性贸易壁垒协议第1条第4款中明确规定：“政府机构为其生产或消费要求所制定的采购规格不受本协定规定的约束，而应根据政府采购协定的范围由该协定处理。” 因此，各地方、州和联邦政府的采购规范是不在该协议下的。文献来源：Uche U. Ofodile. Import (toy) safety, consumer protection and the WTO Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade: prospects, progress and problems. Int.
9、J. Private Law, Vol. 2, No. 2, 2009Import (toy) safety, consumer protection and the WTOAgreement on Technical Barriers to Trade: prospects, progress and problemsGlobal trade, human rights and import safety The risk to human and animal life of tainted imported products cannot be overstated. More than
10、 100 people died from taking the diethylene glycol-tainted cold medicines and dozens more became ill. As many as 21 deaths may be linked to heparin, a popular blood thinner widely used in dialysis and heart procedures to stave off blood clots. According to the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA),
11、the critical blood thinner contained a counterfeit ingredient that mimicked the real drug.14 Using sophisticated magnetic resonance imaging tests, the FDA uncovered that as much as 20% of the products active ingredient was an imitation.In a fast globalising world, how can countries be sure that prod
12、ucts that arrive on their shores are safe? Can WTO member states unilaterally adopt new regulations that lay down characteristics or related processes and production methods for toys? The question arises because technical regulations and standards implicate international trade law and human rights l
13、aw. On one hand, technical regulations and standards can operate as barriers to trade and negatively impact consumer product preferences, quality expectations and price options. Technical regulations and standards relating to toy quality and safety, even if not discriminatory de jure or de facto may
14、 create obstacles to trade by the fact that these standards and regulations vary from one country to another. Assuming the 153 members that make up the WTO decide to create their own toy safety regulations and standards, a toy manufacturer in China, for example, would be faced with some 153 regulati
15、ons to comply with. The result would be loss of economies of scale. On other hand, it is increasingly recognised that health and safety regulations are at the core of government responsibility. Governments have the sovereign right and the responsibility to protect their citizens from harm. In Resolu
16、tion A/RES/54/165 adopted in 1999, the United Nations General Assembly noted that while globalisation, by its impact on, inter alia, the role of the state may affect human rights, the promotion and protection of all human rights is, first and foremost, the responsibility of the state.15 Resolution A
17、/RES/54/165 also emphasized the need to analyse the consequences of globalisation for the full enjoyment of all human rights.16 Regarding the health and safety of children, Article 3 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) stipulates that in all actions concerning children,
18、 whether undertaken by public or private social welfare institutions, courts of law, administrative authorities or legislative bodies, the best interests of the child shall be a primary consideration.17 The CRC also guarantees to every child, the right to life (Article 6), the right to health (Artic
19、le 24) and the right to rest and leisure, to engage in play and recreational activities appropriate to the age of the child. Pursuant to Article 19 of the CRC, states parties undertake to take all appropriate legislative, administrative, social and educational measures to protect the child from all
20、forms of injury or abuse while in the care of parent(s), legal guardian(s) or any other person who has the care of the child.Overall, technical regulations and standards touch on sensitive issues of state sovereignty, domestic security, public health, human rights and free trade. The challenge for p
21、olicy makers is to adopt laws and policies that adequately protect the rights and welfare of their citizens without undermining the fundamental principles of the multilateral trading system. As the Center for International Development at Harvard University rightly observed that government regulation
22、s or industry standards for goods can impact trade in at least three ways: they can facilitate exchange by clearly defining product characteristics and improving compatibility and usability; they also advance domestic social goals like public health by establishing minimum standards or prescribing s
23、afety requirements; finally, they can hide protectionist policies.18Product safety, domestic regulatory autonomy and the WTO TBT Agreement Government regulations and industry standards that lay down characteristics or related processes and production methods for toys are covered by the TBT Agreement
24、. The Agreement defines a technical regulation as a document which lays down product characteristics or their related processes and production methods, including the applicable administrative provisions, with which compliance is mandatory. It may also include or deal exclusively with terminology, sy
25、mbols, packaging, marking or labelling requirements as they apply to a product, process or production method.19 The TBT Agreement also applies to technical standards and conformity assessment as defined in Annex I of the Agreement.20 The TBT Agreement covers a broad range of products. Essentially, a
26、ll products, including industrial and agricultural products are subject to the provisions of the agreement.21 Excluded, however, are purchasing specifications prepared by governmental bodies for production or consumption requirements of governmental bodies.22 The TBT Agreement works a fine line betw
27、een respecting the sovereign right of states to safeguard the health and safety of their citizens and ensuring that technical regulations do not operate as disguised barriers to international trade. The sixth preambular paragraph reads: “Recognising that no country should be prevented from taking me
28、asures necessary to ensure the quality of its exports, or for the protection of human, animal or plant life or health, of the environment, or for the prevention of deceptive practices, at the levels it considers appropriate, subject to the requirement that they are not applied in a manner which woul
29、d constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination between countries where the same conditions prevail or a disguised restriction on international trade and are otherwise in accordance with the provisions of this Agreement.”The TBT Agreement and respect for domestic regulatory autonom
30、yWhile some provisions of the TBT Agreement appear to constrain domestic regulatory autonomy, other provisions of the Agreement appears to preserve domestic regulatory autonomy. First, the requirement in Article 2.4 that members use relevant international standards as a basis for their technical reg
31、ulation is not absolute. The requirement does not apply when relevant international standards would be an ineffective or inappropriate means for the fulfilment of the legitimate objectives pursued members.38 Second, even when a pertinent international standard exists, members need not base their mea
32、sure entirely on such a standard, but can use relevant parts of such standards. Third, the burden of proof is on a member challenging another members measure to prove that the relevant international standards would not be an ineffective or inappropriate means for the fulfillment of the legitimate ob
33、jectives pursued by the member whose measure is challenged. In EC Sardines, the WTO Appellate Body held that the complaining state bears the burden of proving the elements of Article 2.4 as a whole. Thus, the complaining member must not only show that the relevant international standard was not used
34、 as a basis for that challenged regulation, but must also show that the relevant international standard is an effective or appropriate means for the fulfillment of the legitimate objectives pursued by the responding member.39 Finally, government procurements are exempted from the reach of the TBT Ag
35、reement. Article 1.4 specifically provides that purchasing specifications prepared by governmental bodies for production or consumption requirements of governmental bodies are not subject to the provisions ofthis Agreement. Thus, purchasing specification by local, state and the federal government ar
36、e immune from legal challenge under the Agreement.Resource：Uche U. Ofodile. Import (toy) safety, consumer protection and the WTO Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade: prospects, progress and problems. Int. J. Private Law, Vol. 2, No. 2, 2009五分钟搞定5000字毕业论文外文翻译，你想要的工具都在这里!在科研过程中阅读翻译外文文献是一个非常重要的环节，
37、许多领域高水平的文献都是外文文献，借鉴一些外文文献翻译的经验是非常必要的。由于特殊原因我翻译外文文献的机会比较多，慢慢地就发现了外文文献翻译过程中的三大利器：Google“翻译”频道、金山词霸（完整版本）和CNKI“翻译助手。具体操作过程如下： 1.先打开金山词霸自动取词功能，然后阅读文献； 2.遇到无法理解的长句时，可以交给Google处理，处理后的结果猛一看，不堪入目，可是经过大脑的再处理后句子的意思基本就明了了； 3.如果通过Google仍然无法理解，感觉就是不同，那肯定是对其中某个“常用单词”理解有误，因为某些单词看似很简单，但是在文献中有特殊的意思，这时就可以通过CNKI的“翻译助手
38、”来查询相关单词的意思，由于CNKI的单词意思都是来源与大量的文献，所以它的吻合率很高。 另外，在翻译过程中最好以“段落”或者“长句”作为翻译的基本单位，这样才不会造成“只见树木，不见森林”的误导。四大工具： 1、Google翻译： google，众所周知，谷歌里面的英文文献和资料还算是比较详实的。我利用它是这样的。一方面可以用它查询英文论文，当然这方面的帖子很多，大家可以搜索，在此不赘述。回到我自己说的翻译上来。下面给大家举个例子来说明如何用吧比如说“电磁感应透明效应”这个词汇你不知道他怎么翻译，首先你可以在CNKI里查中文的，根据它们的关键词中英文对照来做，一般比较准确。 在此主要是说在g
39、oogle里怎么知道这个翻译意思。大家应该都有词典吧，按中国人的办法，把一个一个词分着查出来，敲到google里，你的这种翻译一般不太准，当然你需要验证是否准确了，这下看着吧，把你的那支离破碎的翻译在google里搜索，你能看到许多相关的文献或资料，大家都不是笨蛋，看看，也就能找到最精确的翻译了，纯西式的！我就是这么用的。 2、CNKI翻译： CNKI翻译助手，这个网站不需要介绍太多，可能有些人也知道的。主要说说它的有点，你进去看看就能发现：搜索的肯定是专业词汇，而且它翻译结果下面有文章与之对应（因为它是CNKI检索提供的，它的翻译是从文献里抽出来的），很实用的一个网站。估计别的写文章的人不是
40、傻子吧，它们的东西我们可以直接拿来用，当然省事了。网址告诉大家，有兴趣的进去看看，你们就会发现其乐无穷！还是很值得用的。 3、网路版金山词霸（不到1M）： 4、有道在线翻译：翻译时的速度：这里我谈的是电子版和打印版的翻译速度，按个人翻译速度看，打印版的快些，因为看电子版本一是费眼睛，二是如果我们用电脑，可能还经常时不时玩点游戏，或者整点别的，导致最终SPPEED变慢，再之电脑上一些词典（金山词霸等）在专业翻译方面也不是特别好，所以翻译效果不佳。在此本人建议大家购买清华大学编写的好像是国防工业出版社的那本英汉科学技术词典，基本上挺好用。再加上网站如：google CNKI翻译助手，这样我们的翻译
41、速度会提高不少。具体翻译时的一些技巧（主要是写论文和看论文方面） 大家大概都应预先清楚明白自己专业方向的国内牛人，在这里我强烈建议大家仔细看完这些头上长角的人物的中英文文章，这对你在专业方向的英文和中文互译水平提高有很大帮助。 我们大家最蹩脚的实质上是写英文论文，而非看英文论文，但话说回来我们最终提高还是要从下大工夫看英文论文开始。提到会看，我想它是有窍门的，个人总结如下： 1、把不同方面的论文分夹存放，在看论文时，对论文必须做到看完后完全明白（你重视的论文）；懂得其某部分讲了什么（你需要参考的部分论文），在看明白这些论文的情况下，我们大家还得紧接着做的工作就是把论文中你觉得非常巧妙的表达写下
42、来，或者是你论文或许能用到的表达摘记成本。这个本将是你以后的财富。你写论文时再也不会为了一些表达不符合西方表达模式而烦恼。你的论文也降低了被SCI或大牛刊物退稿的几率。不信，你可以试一试 2、把摘记的内容自己编写成检索，这个过程是我们对文章再回顾，而且是对你摘抄的经典妙笔进行梳理的重要阶段。你有了这个过程。写英文论文时，将会有一种信手拈来的感觉。许多文笔我们不需要自己再翻译了。当然前提是你梳理的非常细，而且中英文对照写的比较详细。 3、最后一点就是我们往大成修炼的阶段了，万事不是说成的，它是做出来的。写英文论文也就像我们小学时开始学写作文一样，你不练笔是肯定写不出好作品来的。所以在此我鼓励大家有时尝试着把自己的论文强迫自己写成英文的，一遍不行，可以再修改。最起码到最后你会很满意。呵呵，我想我是这么觉得的。