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1、Module 12 Personality12.1 Contemporary approaches to personality “Personality” a characteristics pattern of thinking, feeling, and behaving that is unique to each individual, and remains relatively consistent over time an situations Personality measurements1. “idiographic approach” focusing on creat
2、e detailed descriptions of a specific persons unique personality characteristics - Figure myself out- It is helpful for understanding your social worlds, and can be applied to the full range of human experience 2. “nomothetic approach” examine personality in large group of people, with the aim of ma
3、king generalization of about personality structure - To understand the factors that predict certain behaviours across people in general - The KEY is to identify the important personality traits that are related to whatever it is that you are interested in understanding The trait perspective “Persona
4、lity trait” describes a persons habitual patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving - How that person is most of the time) - The first systematic attempt to identify all possible traits was made in the 1930s by Allport “the Barnum effect” people are easy to be convinced that a personality profile d
5、escribe them well, while the profile is generally false and not describe them at all- This is the reason why personality tests of questionable validity are so widely believed, as well as horoscopes, astrologers, and psychics - 实验: 每个人都拿到一模一样的描述，而他们都觉得说的就是他们自己 “factor analysis” is used to group items
6、 that people respond to similarity - 比如friendly, warm, and kind can be group together The Five Factor Model (Big Five)It is a trait-based theory of personality based on the finding that personality can be described using five major dimension 1. “Openness” 开放型a. 高分表现:Dreamers, creative, open to new t
7、hings, new ways of seeing things, open to new experience, curious, considered unconventional, think more abstractly, more sensitive to emotions b. 低分表现:Defenders, conventional, avoid unknown and find security from the known, prefer tangible, being practical, straightforward, dislike complexity, resi
8、stant to change 2. “Conscientiousness” 责任型a. 高分表现:Organizers, efficient, self-disciplined, dependable, comfortable with schedules and lists, great employees and students, live longer due to positive health behavioursb. 低分表现:Easy-going ones, fun to hang out with, poor collaborators, disorganized, car
9、eless with details, difficult to meet deadline, be-in-the-moment, not that stress about details 3. “Extraversion” 外向型a. 高分表现:Socializers, sensation seekers, love stimulating environments, love company, outgoing and energetic, assertive, talkative, enthusiastic, prefer high level of stimulation and e
10、xcitement, take things too far, have higher risk of dangerous b. 低分表现:Quiet, solitary, recharging their batteries, overwhelmed by high levels of stimulation, more caution and reserved, someone who can really to talk to 4. “Agreeableness” 服从型a. 高分表现:Warm and friendly, easy to be friend with, compassi
11、onate, empathetic, helpful and altruistic, willing to put their on interest aside in order to please others or avoid conflicts, hard to choose, great team members, poor leadership skills b. 低分表现:Uncooperative, unkind, out themselves first, being authentic more than pandering to other peoples needs,
12、engage in conflict if necessary, skeptical of others motives, less trusting of human nature, self-interested5. “Neuroticism” 神经质型a. 高分表现:Neurotics, difficult to deal with, emotional volatility, have negative emotions, sensitive, strong reaction to stressful situations, magnify small frustration into
13、 major problems, and persist, most vulnerable to anxiety and depressive disordersb. 低分表现:Mentally healthy, secure and confident, highly resilient to stress, excellent at managing emotions, regard as stablePersonality of evil “Authoritarian personality” 独裁/权利主义- Theorized to be rigid and dogmatic in
14、their thinking, separate social world into US and THEM, believe strongly in the superiority in US and the inferiority in THEM- Likely to endorse prejudice and violence towards THEM- 于二战后提出There are 3 lines of research that discover personality beyond the big five1. “HEXACO model of personality” a si
15、x factor theory, 在big five基础上新增加了一个additional factor, 就是 “honesty-humility” 诚信/人性a. 高分表现:Sincere, honest, faithful, modest, perform altruistic and prosocial behavioursb. 低分表现:Deceitful, greedy, pompous, selfish, antisocial, violent tendency, materialistic, manipulate others, break the rules, unfaith
16、ful to relationship, strong sense of self-importance2. “The Dark Triad” 黑暗面 包含三个traitsI. “Machiavellianism” 权术主义(To use people and to be manipulative and deceitful, lack respect, focus predominantly in their self-interest)Become aggressive when it serves their goals II. “Psychopathy” 精神病(Having shal
17、low emotional response, feel little empathy, harming others with little remorse for their actions)Become aggressive when they feel physically threatened III. “Narcissism” 自恋(Egotistical preoccupation with self-image and excessive focus on self-importance, like full of himself)Become aggressive when
18、they feel self-esteem is threatened3. “Right-wing Authoritarianism” 右翼独裁主义- As a highly problematic set of personality characteristics that involve three key tendenciesa. Obeying orders and deferring to the established authorities in a society绝对服从已建立政府的法规b. Supporting aggression against those who di
19、ssent or differ from the established social order 支持对于不同于建立的法规的思想或行动的暴力制裁c. Believing strongly in maintaining the existing social order 强烈地维持已建立的一切任何规定- CENTER: thinking in dogmatic terms 非黑即白,没有过度地带- Thinking with complete certainty- Process info in highly biased ways, ignoring or rejecting evidenc
20、e that contradict their views- Unquestioning acceptance of authority figures- Helping to maintain repressive dictatorships in Hitlers time- “Global change game实验” 一群RWA高的人一下子就ruin the world Personality traits over the lifespan Our personality start even before we are born- Infant possess different t
21、emperament right from birth, suggesting that the seeds of our personalities are present right from birth - Infant temperament predict the adult personality of neuroticism, extraversion, and conscientiousness 三岁看到老实验: longitudinal study测试三岁小孩的不同脾性是否能预测长大的性格 Neurons that fire together wire together -
22、Personality conditions how you feel, perceive, interpret, and behave, this set I motion processes that feed back to reinforce the original personality trait, like a positive feedback system Young adults tend to experience fewer negative emotions than do adolescence, reflecting decrease in neuroticis
23、m. Also conscientiousness, agreeableness, and extraversion all increase in early adulthood There is considerable stability in our personality- Over time, our environments changes as well as the roles we play in those environments- Although individuals may change over time, their personal characteris
24、tics relative to other people remain remarkably stablePersonality traits and state Peoples behaviour is also determined by situational factors and context “State” is a temporary physical or psychological engagement that influence behaviours 四种情况1. Location 2. Associations 独自一人或者与别人在一起3. Activities 4
25、. Subjective states 生气，高兴，或者生病Behaviourist perspective There is no existence of internalized traits - The relationship between specific environmental stimuli and the observed pattern of behaviour is important, behaviour is based on past experiences - Personality is a description of the response tend
26、encies that occur in different situations The dimension of “extraversion” is unnecessary - Emphasize the importance of stimulus-response associations that are learned through exposure to specific situations, rather than emphasizing internalized, relatively stable personality traits The AGREEMENT bet
27、ween behaviourist and other approaches is the emphasis on how learning contributes to personality Social-Cognitive theory perspective (By Albert Bandura)It emphasize the role of beliefs and the reciprocal relationships between people and their environment Environmental stimuli do not automatically t
28、rigger specific behaviour, instead inform individuals belief about the world, in particular, their beliefs about that consequences are likely to follow from certain behaviours CENTRAL IDEA: “reciprocal determinism”- Behaviour, internal factors, external factors interact to determine one another, and
29、 that our personalities are based on interactions among these three aspects So personality is not something inside the person, but rather exist between the person and the environment Peoples personalities and their environment are interdependent in many different ways, linked together in feedback lo
30、ops that connect their perceptions, cognitions, emotions, behaviours- the ways they structure their environment, the ways that their environments structure them 12.2 Cultural and biological approaches to personality Universals and differences across cultures Despite the differences that may exist be
31、tween cultures, the people in those cultures share the same basic personality structures Although individual personalities differ enormously, the basic machinery of the human personality system is universal 在中国的研究: researchers found 4 traits:- Dependability可靠型, social potency社会效能型, individualism个人主义
32、型, interpersonal relatedness人际关系型 At this point, most psychologists would agree the five factor model captures important and perhaps universal dimensions of personality- But also might miss important cultural-specific qualities than can only be understood by analyzing personality from that cultures
33、perspective Comparing between nations Many of the findings in these large-scale cross-cultural studies defy cultural stereotypes It is difficult to understand if these differences are real because:1. Language translation challenge 2. “Response styles” characteristic ways of responding questions (Ens
34、ure that people use the same kind of reasoning process when answering the questions because response styles can be strongly influenced by cultural norms)比如发现日本人分数都特别低，不是因为真的人不好，而是文化背景让他们习惯谦虚 The problem of essentializing cultural differences - It is hard to attribute that difference to something fun
35、damental to the cultures, some sort of basic differences between the essence of each culture Individualism东亚国家 vs. Collectivism西方国家- Individualism注重自己, collectivism注重于外界的联系- To individualists, the individualistic task was processed by the brains as most self-relevant, the parietal lobe is firing. To
36、 collectivists, it was the collectivistic task most self-relevant Genetic influence on personalityGenetic factors contribute substantially to personality Twin studies 同卵和异卵双胞胎的实验证明基因确实一定程度上决定我们的性格 In terms of basic personality characteristics, your genes are more important than you home - Most of th
37、e time, the influence of parenting on personality is overshadowed by the contribution made by our genes Researchers had discovered genes that code for specific brain chemicals than are related to personality Role of evolution in personality Animals have personalities- 对于chimpanzee的研究表明big five同样存在 T
38、he big five traits are selected for being adaptive in past evolutionary epochs, helping to promote survival and reproduction - 每个性格特征的高分和低分都有自己的长处，所以并不是神经质型高分的就一定不好，低分的就一定好 Being either high or low in each big five trait could be desirable, depending on the situationsThe brain and personality “Humou
39、rism” explained both physical illness and disorders of personality as resulting from imbalance in key fluids in the body the 4 “humours” - 4 humours: blood, phlegm, black bile, yellow bile “Phrenology” (by Franz Gall) the theory that personality characteristics could be assessed by carefully measuri
40、ng the outer skull - The specific dimensions of the skull indicated the size of the brain area inside, which in turn corresponded to specific personality - 根据人的头骨把大脑分成几个区域，每个区域负责不同的性格特征Extraversion and arousal “Arousal theory of extraversion” arguing that extraversion is determined by peoples thresh
41、old of arousal - Extraverts have higher threshold for arousal than introverts, so extraverts generally seek greater amount of stimulation Module of brain-personality relationship models:1. “Ascending reticular activating system (ARAS)” plays a central role in controlling this arousal response - It i
42、s the reactivity that differentiate the extraverts and the introverts 2. “Approach/ inhibition model of motivation” describes two major brain systems for processing rewards and punishments A. “Behavioural activation system (BAS)” a GO system Arousing the person to respond to action in the pursuit of
43、 desired goals Responsive to rewards and unresponsive to negative consequences Related to extraversionB. “Behavioural inhibition system (BIS)” a DANGER system Motivating the person to action in order to avoid punishment or other negative outcomes Associated with greater negative emotional responses
44、and avoidance motivation Related to neuroticismImage of personality in the brain Extraversion1. Larger medial orbitofrontal lobe for processing reward 2. Less activation in the amygdala for processing novelty, danger, and fear Conscientiousness 1. Larger middle frontal gyrus in the left prefrontal c
45、ortex involve in working memory and carrying our planned actions Neuroticism 1. Smaller dorsomedial prefrontal cortex controlling emotions 2. Smaller hippocampus controlling obsessive negative thinking 3. Larger mid-cingulate gyrus detecting errors and perceiving pain Agreeableness 1. Smaller volume
46、 of superior temporal sulcus interpreting others intentions2. Larger posterior cingulate involve in empathy and perspective-taking Openness1. Greater activation in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex involve creativity and intelligence These does not mean these difference cause the personality difference
47、, it suggest these brain regions are involved in serving neurological functions that related to personality process There is no specific brain area that involved uniquely in a single personality trait 12.3 Psychodynamic and humanistic approach to personality Psychodynamic perspective “Psychodynamic
48、theory” by Freud 其实根本就不是一个theory- The universal assumption is that personality and behaviour are shaped by powerful focus in consciousness - We have very little control over ourselves, and remarkably little insight into the reason for our own behaviours - Our mind is a black-box “conscious” 意识- Current awareness, containing everything th