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1、附录1经济学的拉合尔杂志16 : SE ( 2011年9月):页255-270息差和银行资产负债组合摘要本文探讨了银行的息差的因素。结果表明,短期政府债券(浮动利息的债务)和大份额的银行持有的利率不敏感的存款息差的主要决定因素。这是相对于该行业的寡头垄断的市场力量有利于银行的高息差普遍的看法。虽然行为改变,一个更大的倾角,以保存和产出的增加,可能会降低利率不敏感的存款份额,在减少政府债务依赖于一定的宏观变量和宏观经济管理的状态。鉴于这些因素,并包含利润的可能途径,遏制的过程是一个艰巨的任务。该研究还隐含证实,政府借贷挤出私人投资。关键词:息差,银行,巴基斯坦。JEL分类号: G21 , G12
2、 。1引言银行的相当高的息差一直是最近备受关注的巴基斯坦当局。这促使央行(巴基斯坦国家银行)厘定的强制性最低比率对储蓄存款(其中的功能都或多或少类似于一个有利可图的支票帐户)于2008年1月,但利息收益率并没有下降,尽管在强制性地板;相反,根据票面利率,对新贷款和存款利率则由2007年12月5.14 上升到7.15 的2011年3月。值得一提的是,我们认为储蓄存款在很大程度上不受回报所提供的速率。因此,即使在储蓄存款增加收益可能增加现有存款人的收入,最低比率的储蓄存款可能不会起到鼓励储蓄和投资。 *副教授,发展经济学研究所巴基斯坦( PIDE ) ,伊斯兰堡。卡瓦贾近年来,政府的国内债务增加了
3、不少。政府的狂潮借高息的背后已经为银行提供一个有吸引力的投资途径,一个是比贷款更有吸引力。对政府文件的更高的回报,如果不是转嫁到存贷款基准利率,旨在提高银行的息差。虽然国内债务的影响已被广泛研究,该变量尚未审查作为利息收益率的决定因素。前述讨论重新查找在息差的顺序决定通知policymaking.1高息差对经济会带来很多负面影响:它不鼓励储蓄和投资(卡瓦贾与喧嚣, 2007年);造成资源调配失当;收入。什么是更令人关注到当局的是,高息差制约了货币政策的利率渠道的有效性,为改变政策利率没有完全传输对贷款及存款rates.2随着时间的推移,银行业巴基斯坦已经从大众变为私有,与银行的一大块持有资产由
4、私人部门在2002年。的决定因素私营部门和公共部门的下息差可能会有所不同:而只追求利润的动机将推动私营部门,公共部门可能会在意药的福利。此外,虽然公共部门银行享受优先获得低成本的政府资金,他们也可能是不得不卷入优惠低产贷款给政府和国有企业。相对较小的风险连接到公共部门银行存款也可能让他们挖掘进入更大的市场份额。这是第一个研究,探讨的决定因素息差,用数据跨度( 2002-09 )选择这样的周围80 的银行业务是在私营部门。这项研究的组织如下。第2节提出了一个简短的文献复习。的方法,它强调对于包含在模型中的变量的理由,在第3节中讨论。第4节介绍了数据结构,和第5节的结果其次是解释和分析。的进一步讨
5、论结果如下在第6和第7节总结了研究。1本研究延伸卡瓦贾和DIN( 2007)对利差的决定因素。在这里,我们包括短期国债的模式,这已经成为突出的,给予政府的巨大的国内借款。我们还分别考察的决定因素保证金的各个组成部分(即资产和负债) 。2有关货币政策在水平的影响的讨论与经验证据实际经济活动,看到伯南克和布林德( 1992) ,弗里德曼和施瓦茨( 1963) ,和罗默和罗默( 1989) 。息差和银行资产负债组合2572.文献回顾息差的因素已经探索了文学的广阔身体。业界的浓度是最检查变量。产业组织文献中预测的寡头垄断市场结构可能有助于更高的息差(塞缪尔瓦德拉玛, 2006) 。广泛地说,的凸决定保
6、证金包括: ( i)该行业的市场结构, ( ii)银行专用变量, (三)宏观经济变量,以及(iv)金融法规。贝恩公司( 1951)的结构 - 行为 - 绩效( SCP)假说认为,在一个集中的市场的公司都能够串通支付相对较少的他们的负债和支出更多的资产,从而增加了利润率。 Ho和桑德斯( 1981)查看银行作为“经销商” ,要求储户和供应商的贷款,并认为银行的息差取决于四个因素:银行管理风险的程度该行业的厌恶,市场结构,银行的平均大小交易和利率的变化。此外,作者估计到了一些缺陷和监管限制的有对传播的影响,并考虑概率的贷款违约和持有法定存款准备金的机会成本是额外的变量影响的传播。 NEUMARK和
7、夏普( 1992)隐式地确认对SCP假说为美国。他们发现,在银行集中市场正在慢慢提高响应市场上涨存款利率利率,但速度更快,以减少这些因应市场下滑率,从而维持较高的利差。Corvoisier和Gropp ( 2001)研究假说Euroarea国家,并确认SCP假说认为贷款及活期存款利率,但不适用于储蓄和定期存款利率。汉南和梁( 1993)和Barajas ,施泰纳和萨拉萨尔( 1999) ,使用数据美国和哥伦比亚,也表明行业集中度可能会导致到更高的扩散。普拉格和汉南( 1998)考察的价格影响美国银行合并,导致本地市场大幅增长浓度,并发现,在1991-1994年,存款利率在提供本地市场,兼并发生
8、比例下降更多比没有合并的市场。萨皮恩扎(2002 )研究的影响银行合并在意大利银行的信贷政策,并报告说,在市场兼并的情况下,利率收取综合银行减少,如果合并涉及收购银行与小的市场份额。然而,作为当地市场份额所收购银行的增加,下降是由市场力量所抵消。爱德华兹( 1965)检查浓度和竞争的影响258 Idrees卡瓦贾美国银行业,并认为合并产生较大的负面在浓度较低的市场对性能的影响。监管机构应,因此,要警惕在浓度较低的市场兼并高达他们是在比较集中的市场。3.研究方法和数据我们利用所使用的息差的经销模式马丁内斯(2004年) ,以指定一个模型来检查在银行方面,其经营成本,成本的市场结构监管部门和各种宏
9、观经济变量可能影响的息差。在这里,我们还包括了短期政府由银行作为决定因素的息差,持有的债务而以往的研究还没有做。动机是,银行发现它有利于投资。在几个方面政府债券:投资于政府文件是少有风险的,它并不意味着一个大的管理和分析成本,使一个投资决策,最重要的,如果货币政策偏紧,返回政府文件可能是这样的投资成为一个对自己有吸引力的机会。投资于政府债券的成本是较小的和返回相对较大;这样的投资很可能会提高保证金如果银行在更高的回报不传递给他们的客户,也就是说,借款人及存款。在模型中纳入政府债券是更重要的,因为传闻证据表明,政府债券挤走贷款给私营部门。以我们的领先优势从卡瓦贾和DIN (2007年) ,我们还
10、包括在银行我们的模型的兴趣不敏感的存款比重举行。该理由是,银行不需要提供此类存款更高的回报,其中流量不敏感所提供的利率。从而,一个更大的应得利益不敏感的存款可能会降低整体资金成本为银行,从而提高息差。约50的业务量,存款和贷款,由五个或六个主要举行银行。鉴于这些存款的显著部分,这是我们长期利率不敏感的存款,涉及到自身的银行(即没有任何努力对银行的一部分) ,成本为存款动员的银行很可能是相当低的。例如,政府部门大多银行与巴基斯坦国营国家银行,而军队只与阿斯卡里,这是由陆军福利信托基金,这是国有银行建立促进军队离退休员工的福利。同样,很多人钱存入银行的唯一目的安全的,并且不关心回报率。存款通常通过
11、提供在巴基斯坦银行的产品包括活期存款,储蓄存款和定期存款。活期账户中存款的零税率,也就是说,他们不赚取任何利益,因此不敏感变化的利率。我们对待置于储蓄存款账户利息不敏感的,因为它们是由典型的小举行存款和谁维护这些帐户以满足受薪人士日常理财需要,而不是赚取利息。 其他类存款账户“构成总存款的比例可以忽略不计,而将其列入对任何一方不太可能影响结果。这些存款也兴趣不敏感。从理论上讲,改变政策利率,这里所代理的六个月国库券利率,应传递,在竞争环境中,以沉积速率。然而, 存款使银行保持自身所有的有利或部分改变利率和传递给代理的全部负担,甚至更多,如果在政策利率的变化是不利的银行。由此,更大的息不敏感的存
12、款,较高的息差。鉴于目前的存款(活期账户)及储蓄存款,这我们认为不敏感,构成总数的相当一部分( 66 )业存款在2009年,在列入利息不敏感的存款该模型是更重要的。在这里,它的息差,定义为之间的区别赚取的平均资产的利息及平均支付的利息负债; ( ,)是参数向量,它是随机误差项,并且它是解释性变量的矢量,其中包括以下内容。行业变量浓度、公司(银行)的变量、行政成本、不良贷款、股东权益。宏观变量短期债务(政府债务浮动)、实际产出、实际利率。产业组织文献中提供了两种相互竞争的假设有关行业的市场结构。该SCP假说认为,市场集中度导致官商勾结中公司。随着勾结是在一个集中的市场较小的成本,公司能够串通,从
13、而获得租金。鉴于市场力量,银行会赚取更多的资产可能比在竞争激烈的市场中,并支付相对较少的负债,从而提高息差。如果对SCP假说成立,则浓度变应随身携带一积极的迹象。有效结构假说声称,高效在同行业中领先的公司运作赶出低效率的,市场变得集中,企业获得李嘉图租金。到惟效率是由较低的边际成本占商品的特定质量,银行在集中市场产生输出应该找到它有利的贷款,并提供较低的利息费用存款更高的利息,从而降低了利润率。因此,如果高效的结构假说成立,则浓度变应随身携带一个负号。给出两个相冲突的预测假设,我们用一个模糊的迹象浓度变量。该两个假设已经过测试,广泛用于银行业(伯杰和汉南, 1989) 。同时行业集中度,初级的
14、两个变量兴趣是短期国债的数量(浮动债)和利息不敏感的存款。我们推测,这两个携带积极的迹象。浮动利息的债务预计将承担一个积极的迹象,因为作为债务的增加,利率可能上升,从而增加产生于政府债券和银行贷款。同等条件下,这提高了利润率。通常情况下,银行将支付较少的利息不敏感存款。因此,利息不敏感的存款份额较大一家银行的存款总额,资金较小的平均成本。这将提高利润率,因此,有理由对正号边距和银行资产负债组合261不敏感的存款。公式中剩余的变量( 1 )为控制变量。对流动性的系数被假设为负因为流动性有一个机会成本,即成本并非投资于高收益资产,比如“进步”,因此,增加的流动性应该做一个凹痕的息差。由银行持有的股
15、权也带有一种机会成本。如果银行设法转嫁这一成本,存款人和借款人,然后传播将与股本积极变化。如果不这样做会降低银行的息差。鉴于冲突的期望,我们断定股本暧昧的迹象。如果银行要承担更大的中介费用筹集存款或贷款资金时,它会试图通过对存款支付较少和充电多才能收回成本贷款。因此,息差有所不同,应积极与中介费用。不良贷款 - 贷款,银行无法收回,造成一成本对银行,并应引起利润率萎缩。市场共用一个银行在同行业中的反映,前者的市场影响力和积极影响利润率。但是,规模经济伴随着较大的市场规模可能允许银行收取借款人更少,并提供其存款等等。如果发生这种情况,保证金将与市场份额变化负面影响。这种冲突使我们断定暧昧的迹象个
16、别银行的市场份额。宏观经济环境具有影响的潜力银行的息差。因此,我们控制了实际产出的影响,实际利率的息差。实际产出增长捕获商业周期对息差的影响。在这种情况下,伯南克和格特勒( 1989)认为,一个经济活动放缓不利的影响借款人的净资产,从而降低利息保证金(正面影响) 。对实际利率的系数会靠到改变了利率的情况下由被传递银行给客户。一个一换一过手会导致积极的信号对实际利率系数,而较小的直通会导致不同的符号。4.进一步讨论这引出一个答案的问题是,什么可以做,以提高息差?答案是,没有多少。然而,为了回答这个问题更清楚,我们必须先问什么含的目标息差是。它是存款人的福利或为了鼓励储蓄和投资?如果是前者,或许还
17、有一个最低比率持续对储蓄存款将是正确的政策追求的目标。但是,虽然最低利率对储蓄存款,取得了更大的回报存款,该政策只提出对这些存款的回报,的意思是在银行系统,即使没有被提升的速度。研究人员和机构必须与问题作为格斗如何降低息差增加储蓄和投资,增强的加息通道的有效性货币政策。随着高息差作为源息不敏感的储户的显著比例和短期债务的政府,寻找一种方法来引起凹痕利息收益率,鼓励储蓄和投资意愿的方式证明是困难的。遏制的行为前源调用转换在存款人的行为的改变,使他们更returnconscious 。经济增长也可能有助于提高份额的利率敏感的存款,因为会有更多的钱去拯救。在解决政府债务调用包含后者,减少财政赤字,这
18、可以归结为提高整套宏观经济变量和宏观经济管理。5结论银行的息差一直保持在较高端在整个过去十年。 2008年1月发起的政策力度包含保证金尚未产生效益。此外,该政策努力似乎更执导提高存款人的福利比鼓励储蓄和投资。该研究发现,政府的短期债务,这是一个有吸引力的投资途径银行和利息不敏感的存款.股份是两个高息差的主要决定因素。因此,本银行的资产负债结构保持利润率较高侧。给出的决定因素和方法,使这种可能缘被包含,这个过程是很有可能会成为一项艰巨的任务。附录2The Lahore Journal of Economics16 : SE (September 2011): pp. 255-270Interes
19、t Margins and Banks Asset-Liability CompositionIdrees Khawaja*AbstractThis article examines the determinants of banks interest margins. The results suggest that short-term government bonds (floating debt) and the large share of interest-insensitive deposits held by banks are the key determinants of
20、the interest margin. This is in contrast to the popular perception that the market power of the oligopolistic industry contributes to banks high interest margins. While a behavioral changea greater inclination to save and an increase in outputmight reduce the share of interest-insensitive deposits,
21、the reduction in government debt depends on the state of certain macro-variables and macroeconomic management. Given these determinants and the possible ways of containing margins, the containment process is a tall order. The study also implicitly confirms that government borrowing is crowding out p
22、rivate investment.Keywords: Interest Margin, Banks, Pakistan.JEL Classification: G21, G12.1. IntroductionThe rather high interest margin of banks has been a recent cause for concern for the authorities in Pakistan. This prompted the central bank (State Bank of Pakistan) to fix a mandatory floor rate
23、 on savings deposits (the features of which are more or less similar to a remunerative checking account) in January 2008. However, the interest margin did not decline despite the mandatory floor; rather, based on the coupon rate, the margin on fresh loans and deposits increased from 5.14 percent in
24、December 2007 to 7.15 percent in March 2011. It is worth mentioning here that we consider the savings deposit to be largely insensitive to the rate of return offered. Therefore, even though the increase in returns on savings deposits may increase the income of the existing depositors, the floor rate
25、 on savings deposits may not serve to encourage savings and investment. * Associate Professor, Pakistan Institute of Development Economics (P.I.D.E), Islamabad. 256 Idrees KhawajaIn recent years, the governments domestic debt has increased enormously. The governments frenzy to borrow on the back of
26、high interest rates has provided banks with an attractive investment avenue one that is more attractive than lending. The higher return on government paper, if not passed on to the deposit and lending rate,serves to raise banks interest margin. Although the implications of domestic debt have been st
27、udied extensively, the variable has not been examined as a determinant of the interest margin.The forgoing discussion looks afresh at the determinants of the interest margin in order to inform policymaking.1 A high interest margin has several adverse implications for the economy: it discourages savi
28、ngs and investments (Khawaja & Din, 2007); misallocates resources; and maldistributes income. What is of greater concern to the authorities is that thehigh interest margin constrains the effectiveness of the interest rate channel of monetary policy, as the changes in the policy rate are not fully tr
29、ansmitted to the lending and deposit rates.2 Over time, the banking industry in Pakistan has changed from public to private, with a large chunk of bankingassets being held by the private sector by 2002. The determinants of theinterest margin could be different under the private sector and public sec
30、tor: while only the profit motive would motivate the private sector, the publicsector might care about agents welfare. Moreover, while public sector banks enjoy preferential access to low-cost government funds, they might well have to become involved in preferential and low-yield lending to the gove
31、rnment and state-owned enterprises. The relatively smaller risk attached to deposits held by public sector banks might also allow them to tap into a larger market share. This is the first study to examine the determinants of the interest margin, with a data span (200209) selected such that around 80
32、 percent of banking operations are in the private sector. The study is organized as follows. Section 2 presents a brief review of the literature. The methodology, which emphasizes the rationale for the variables included in the model, is discussed in Section 3. Section 4 explains data construction,
33、and Section 5 presents the results followed by interpretation and analysis. Some further discussion of the results follows in Section 6, and Section 7 concludes the study. 1 This study extends Khawaja and Din (2007) on the determinants of interest spread. Here, we include short-term government debt
34、in the model, which has become salient, given the governments huge domestic borrowings. We also examine separately the determinants of individual components (i.e., assets and liabilities) of the margin. 2 For a discussion and empirical evidence on the impact of monetary policy at the level of real e
35、conomic activity, see Bernanke and Blinder (1992), Friedman and Schwartz (1963), and Romer and Romer (1989). 2. Literature ReviewThe determinants of the interest margin have been explored by a vast body of literature. The concentration of the industry is the most examined variable. The industrial or
36、ganization literature predicts that an oligopolistic market structure may contribute to a higher interest margin (Samuel & Valderrama, 2006). Broadly, the salient determinants of the margin include: (i) the industrys market structure, (ii) bank-specific variables, (iii) macroeconomic variables, and
37、(iv) financial regulations.Bains (1951) structure-conduct-performance (SCP) hypothesis holds that firms in a concentrated market are able to collude to pay relatively less on their liabilities and charge more on their assets, thereby increasing the margin. Ho and Saunders (1981) view the bank as “a
38、dealer” that demands depositors and suppliers of loans, and argue that the banks interest margin depends on four factors: the degree of the bank managements risk aversion, the market structure of the industry, the average size of bank transactions, and the variance of interest rates. In addition, th
39、e authors reckon that a number of imperfections and regulatory restrictions have an impact on spread, and consider the probability that loan defaults and the opportunity cost of holding mandatory reserves are additional variables that influence the spread. Neumark and Sharpe (1992) implicitly confir
40、m the SCP hypothesis for the US. They find that banks in concentrated markets are slower to raise deposit rates in response to rising marketinterest rates, but faster to reduce these in response to declining market rates, thereby maintaining higher spreads. Corvoisier and Gropp (2001) examine the hy
41、pothesis for Euroarea countries, and confirm that the SCP hypothesis holds for loan and demand deposit rates, but not for savings and time deposit rates. Hannan and Liang (1993) and Barajas, Steiner, and Salazar (1999), using data for the US and Colombia, also suggest that industry concentration mig
42、ht lead to a higher spread. Prager and Hannan (1998) examine the price effects of US bank mergers that led to a substantial increase in local market concentration, and find that, during 199194, the deposit rates offered in local markets where mergers took place declined proportionately more than in
43、markets without mergers. Sapienza (2002) examines the effect of banking consolidation on banks credit policies in Italy, and reports that, in the case of in-market mergers, the interest rates charged by consolidated banks decrease if the merger involves the acquisition of banks with a small market s
44、hare. However, as the local market share ofthe acquired bank increases, the decline is offset by market power. Edwards (1965) examines the impact of concentration and competition in the US banking industry, and finds that mergers have a greater negative impact on performance in less concentrated mar
45、kets. Regulators should, therefore, be wary of mergers in less concentrated markets as much as they are in more concentrated markets.3. Methodology and DataWe draw on the dealership model of the interest margin used by Martinez-Peria and Mody (2004) to specify a model to examine the determinants of
46、the interest margin in Pakistan. The model predicts that the market structure of the banking sector, its operating cost, the cost of regulating the sector, and various macroeconomic variables may affect the interest margin. Here, we also include the short-term government debt held by banks as a dete
47、rminant of the interest margin, which previous studies have not done. The motivation is that banks find it beneficial to invest in government paper on several counts: investment in government paper is less risky, it does not entail a large administrative and analytical cost to make an investment dec
48、ision, and above all, if the monetary stance is tight, the return on government paper might be such that the investment becomes an attractive opportunity on its own. The cost of investing in government paper is smaller and the return relatively larger; such investment is likely to raise the margin i
49、f banks do not pass on the higher returns to their customers, i.e.,borrowers and depositors. The inclusion of government bonds in the model is all the more important given the anecdotal evidence that government bonds crowd out lending to the private sector. Taking our lead from Khawaja and Din (2007), we also include in our model the share of interest-insensitive deposits held by banks. The rationale is that banks need not offer a highe