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1、兰州交通大学毕业设计（论文）Gears and gear driveGears are the most durable and rugged of all mechanical drives. They can transmit high power at efficiencies up to 98% and with long service lives. For this reason, gears rather than belts or chains are found in automotive transmissions and most heavy-duty machine d
2、rives. On the other hand, gears are more expensive than other drives, especially if they are machined and not made from power metal or plastic.Gear cost increases sharply with demands for high precision and accuracy. So it is important to establish tolerance requirements appropriate for the applicat
3、ion. Gears that transmit heavy loads or than operate at high speeds are not particularly expensive, but gears that must do both are costly.Silent gears also are expensive. Instrument and computer gears tend to be costly because speed or displacement ratios must be exact. At the other extreme, gears
4、operating at low speed in exposed locations are normally termed no critical and are made to minimum quality standards.For tooth forms, size, and quality, industrial practice is to follow standards set up by the American Gear Manufactures Association (AGMA). Tooth form Standards published by AGMA est
5、ablish gear proportions and tooth profiles. Tooth geometry is determined primarily by pitch, depth, and pressure angle.Pitch：Standards pitches are usually whole numbers when measured as diametral pitch P. Coarse-pitch gearing has teeth larger than 20 diametral pitch usually 0.5 to 19.99. Fine-pitch
6、gearing usually has teeth of diametral pitch 20 to 200.Depth: Standardized in terms of pitch. Standard full-depth have working depth of 2/p. If the teeth have equal addenda(as in standard interchangeable gears) the addendum is 1/p. Stub teeth have a working depth usually 20% less than full-depth tee
7、th. Full-depth teeth have a larger contract ratio than stub teeth. Gears with small numbers of teeth may have undercut so than they do not interfere with one another during engagement. Undercutting reduce active profile and weakens the tooth.Mating gears with long and short addendum have larger load
8、-carrying capacity than standard gears. The addendum of the smaller gear (pinion) is increased while that of larger gear is decreased, leaving the whole depth the same. This form is know as recess-action gearing.Pressure Angle: Standard angles are and . Earlier standards include a 14-pressure angle
9、that is still used. Pressure angle affects the force that tends to separate mating gears. High pressure angle decreases the contact ratio (ratio of the number of teeth in contact) but provides a tooth of higher capacity and allows gears to have fewer teeth without undercutting.Backlash: Shortest dis
10、tances between the non-contacting surfaces of adjacent teeth .Gears are commonly specified according to AGMA Class Number, which is a code denoting important quality characteristics. Quality number denote tooth-element tolerances. The higher the number, the closer the tolerance. Number 8 to 16 apply
11、 to fine-pitch gearing.Gears are heat-treated by case-hardening, through-hardening, nitriding, or precipitation hardening. In general, harder gears are stronger and last longer than soft ones. Thus, hardening is a device that cuts the weight and size of gears. Some processes, such as flame-hardening
12、, improve service life but do not necessarily improve strength. Design checklistThe larger in a pair is called the gear, the smaller is called the pinion.Gear Ratio: The number of teeth in the gear divide by the number of teeth in the pinion. Also, ratio of the speed of the pinion to the speed of th
13、e gear. In reduction gears, the ratio of input to output speeds.Gear Efficiency: Ratio of output power to input power. (includes consideration of power losses in the gears, in bearings, and from windage and churning of lubricant.)Speed: In a given gear normally limited to some specific pitchline vel
14、ocity. Speed capabilities can be increased by improving accuracy of the gear teeth and by improving balance of the rotating parts.Power: Load and speed capacity is determined by gear dimensions and by type of gear. Helical and helical-type gears have the greatest capacity (to approximately 30,000 hp
15、). Spiral bevel gear are normally limited to 5,000 hp, and worm gears are usually limited to about 750 hp.Special requirementsMatched-Set Gearing: In applications requiring extremely high accuracy, it may be necessary to match pinion and gear profiles and leads so that mismatch does not exceed the t
16、olerance on profile or lead for the intended application.Tooth Spacing: Some gears require high accuracy in the circular of teeth. Thus, specification of pitch may be required in addition to an accuracy class specification.Backlash: The AMGA standards recommend backlash ranges to provide proper runn
17、ing clearances for mating gears. An overly tight mesh may produce overload. However, zero backlash is required in some applications.Quiet Gears: To make gears as quit as possible, specify the finest pitch allowable for load conditions. (In some instances, however, pitch is coarsened to change mesh f
18、requency to produce a more pleasant, lower-pitch sound.) Use a low pressure angle. Use a modified profile to include root and tip relief. Allow enough backlash. Use high quality numbers. Specify a surface finish of 20 in. or better. Balance the gear set. Use a nonintegral ratio so that the same teet
19、h do not repeatedly engage if both gear and pinion are hardened steel. (If the gear is made of a soft material, an integral ratio allows the gear to cold-work and conform to the pinion, thereby promoting quiet operation.) Make sure critical are at least 20% apart from operating speeding or speed mul
20、tiples and from frequency of tooth mesh.Multiple mesh gearMultiple mesh refers to move than one pair of gear operating in a train. Can be on parallel or nonparallel axes and on intersection or nonintersecting shafts. They permit higer speed ratios than are feasible with a single pair of gears .Serie
21、s trains:Overall ratio is input shaft speed divided by output speed ,also the product of individual ratios at each mesh ,except in planetary gears .Ratio is most easily found by dividing the product of numbers of teeth of driven gears by the product of numbers of teeth of driving gears.Speed increas
22、ers (with step-up rather than step-down ratios) may require special care in manufacturing and design. They often involve high speeds and may creste problems in gear dynamics. Also, frictional and drag forces are magnified which, in extreme cases , may lead to operational problems.Epicyclic Gearing:N
23、ormally, a gear axis remains fixed and only the gears rotates. But in an epicyclic gear train, various gears axes rotate about one anther to provide specialized output motions. With suitable clutchse and brakes, an epicyclic train serves as the planetary gear commonly found in automatic transmission
24、s. Epicyclic trains may use spur or helical gears, external or internal, or bevel gears. In transmissions, the epicyclic (or planetary) gears usually have multiple planets to increase load capacity.In most cases, improved kinematic accuracy in a gearset decreases gear mesh excitation and results in
25、lower drive noise. Gearset accuracy can be increased by modifying the tooth involute profile, by substituting higher quality gearing with tighter manufacturing tolerances, and by improving tooth surface finish. However, if gear mesh excitation generaters resonance somewhere in the drive system, noth
26、ing short of a “perfect” gearset will substantially reduce vibration and noise.Tooth profiles are modified to avoid interferences which can result from deflections in the gears, shafts, and housing as teeth engage and disendgage. If these tooth interferences are not compensated for by profile modifi
27、cations, gears load capacity can be seriously reduced. In addition, the drive will be noisier because tooth interferences generate high dynamic loads. Interferences typically are eliminated by reliving the tooth tip, the tooth flank, or both. Such profile modifications are especially important for h
28、igh-load , high-speed drives. The graph of sound pressure levelvs tip relief illustrates how tooth profile modifications can affect overall drive noise. If the tip relief is less than this optimum value, drive noise increases because of greater tooth interference; a greater amount of tip relief also
29、 increase noise because the contact ratio is decreased.Tighter manufacturing tolerances also produce quietier gears. Tolerances for such parameters as profile error, pitch AGMA quality level. For instance, the graph depicting SPL vs both speed and gear quality shows how noise decreases example, nois
30、e is reduced significantly by an increase in accuracy from an AGMA Qn 11 quality to an AGNA Qn 15 quality. However, for most commercial drive applications, it is doubtful that the resulting substantial cost increase for such an accuracy improvement can be justified simply on the basis of reduced dri
31、ve noise.Previously, it was mentioned that gears must have adequate clearance when loaded to prevent tooth interference during the course of meshing. Tip and flank relief are common profile modifications that control such interference. Gears also require adequate backlash and root clearance. Noise c
32、onsiderations make backlash an important parameter to evaluate during drive design. Sufficient backlash must be provided under all load and temperature conditions to avoid a tight mesh, which creates excessively high noise level. A tight mesh due to insufficient backlash occurs when the drive and co
33、ast side of a tooth are in contact simultaneously. On the other hand, gears with excessive backlash also are noisy because of impacting teeth during periods of no load or reversing load. Adequate backlash should be provided by tooth thinning rather than by increase in center distance. Tooth thinning
34、 dose not decrease the contact ratio, whereas an increase in center distance does. However, tooth thinning does reduce the bending fatigue, a reduction which is small for most gearing systems.齿轮和齿轮传动在所有的机械传动形式中，齿轮传动是一种最结实耐用的传动方式。它们可以传递很大的功率，效率可以达到98%，并且服务年限长。由于具有以上优点，齿轮传动比皮带装置等其它传动方式更常见于自动式传动机构和重载机构
35、中。在另一方面，齿轮比其它传动方案贵得多，特别是精加工齿轮和合金钢材料的。齿轮的制造成本会随便着精度和公差的要求急剧增加。因此，在合适的范围内选一个合理的公差带就显得尤其重要。用于大功率传递和高速传递的齿轮传动系统不是特别的贵，但是用合金钢材料和精加工的齿轮成本比较高。低噪声齿轮机构也很昂贵。精密仪器和电脑里用的齿轮机构住住是相当昂贵的，因为它们对速度和传动比的要求很高。低速的开式传动的被定义为非临界状态，并且以此作为齿轮的最小标准。齿轮的形状、尺寸、性质和工业用途都遵循美国齿轮制造协会所制定的标准。美国齿轮制造协会发布的标准说明齿轮系的传动比分配比例和齿的轮廓。齿的几何形状主要是由节距、齿高
36、和压力角来确定的。节距：标准节距通常都是整数。大节距齿轮的节距直径比它的节距的二十倍还大，一般在0.519.99之间。小节距齿轮的节距直径一在20200之间。齿高：以节距为标准，齿轮的工作齿面高度是全齿高的一半。如果齿轮有相同的齿高那么齿高是节距的倒数。变位齿轮它的工作时的啮合深度通常比它的全齿高少20%，以防止产生根切身。不变位齿轮比变位齿轮的传动比更大。齿数较少的齿轮可能会产生根切，所以大切削深度的齿轮比起它们来在啮合时候齿轮互不影响。减少齿轮的有效齿廓会使齿轮的强度削弱。让变位齿轮和不变位齿轮相啮和能传递比标准齿轮更大的功率。两个个啮合的齿轮当变位齿轮齿高减小时，不变位齿轮向变位后的齿轮
37、深入一些，保证啮合高度不变。这就是众所周知的间歇性齿轮。压力角：压力角通常取和。早期的压力角还包括14-1/2，现在仍然在使用。压力角的大小会影响相啮合齿轮的强度。大的压力角可以减少齿轮在啮合时的齿数，而且利用不变位齿轮还能够传递更大的功率。齿侧间隙：在两个啮合的齿之间非接触最小的那个间隙。齿轮传动系统都严格按照美国齿轮制造协会所制定的等级制造，每个指标都表示齿轮的一项重要性能。特性指数表示齿轮元素的公差，等级数目越高，它越接近于公差。等级35应用于大节距齿轮，816应用于小节距齿轮。齿轮通过热处理提高强度，比如表面硬化、淬火、氮化、回火。一般而言，硬齿面的齿轮系统比软齿面的齿轮系统使用寿命更
38、长更坚固。因而，淬火可以减小齿轮的尺寸和重量。有些处理方式，例如表面淬火可以提高齿轮的使用寿命但是没有必要提高它的强度。齿轮传动系统的校核项目：在一对相啮合的齿轮中，大的那个是从动轮，小的是主动轮。齿数比：大齿轮的齿数除以小齿轮的齿数。同样也是小齿轮的线速度除以大齿轮的线速度。在齿轮减速机构中，是输入速度与输出速度的比值。齿轮传动的效率：齿轮输出功率与输入功率的比值。（包括考虑传动时的功率损失，轴承、联轴器、和润滑的功率损失）在一些给定的齿轮中，节圆线速度是限定的。齿轮传动速率可以通过提高齿轮制造精度、增加回转件的平衡性来提高。负荷速度和传递功率大小受齿轮尺寸和齿轮类型的限制。斜齿轮和斜齿轮系
39、所能传递的功率最大，可以近似达到30000马力、弧齿锥齿轮一般限制在5000马力、蜗轮蜗杆传动限制在大约750马力。工艺要求：齿轮配合：在工艺上要求比较高精度的齿轮系统中，对于防止错齿、齿廓与齿廓接触和从动齿轮的啮合，不会超过规定的范围是很有必要的。齿间隙：有些齿轮对齿廓的精度要求相当高，因此，齿轮的规格等级必须符合所规定的精度等级。无声传动装置：将齿轮传动系统制造得尽可能的静音。为了达到此目的可以有以下多种方法供选择，选择小螺距齿轮来满足负荷状态的要求；在某些特定情况下，可以改变齿轮的啮合次数来使传动声音减小，或者使声音更加低沉以达到静音的目的；用压力角较小和对齿轮根尖都进行过修正的齿轮；允
40、许足够大的齿间隙；采用高的特性指数；保证表面粗糙度在20或者更小；合理分配齿轮系的传动比；采用一个非整数的传动比，那么一样的齿轮就不会重复的啮合如果它们都是硬化钢材料。如果齿轮由软钢制成且传动比为整数，则齿轮必须冷作处理以满足工作的要求，从而实现无声传动。保证速度临界点大于全速运行的20%或者通过增加齿轮啮合次数来成倍增加的转速。齿轮系传动装置是指在一个传动装置中有不只一对齿轮在啮合工作。可以是相互平行或不平行的轴，相交或不相交的轴。在实际应用中，他们可以达到很高的速度比相对于只有一对齿轮啮合的传动装置。串联齿轮系，所有啮合齿轮的传动比都是将输入轴的转速降到输出轴的转速。总的传动比是所有传动比
41、的乘积，行星轮系不适用这种计算方法。这种传动装置的传动比很好计算，就是将每一对啮合齿轮的传动比相乘。增速器在设计和制造方面有特殊的工艺要求。他们通常包括很高的速度还可能有一些齿轮动力学里一些很极端的问题，同样，摩擦力和拉力也包含在里面，在这种情况下还可能进一步导致操作的问题。行星轮系传动：通常在一个传动装置中，齿轮轴线是固定不变的的仅仅是轴上的齿轮在转动。但是在一个行星轮系中，不同的齿轮轴围着太阳轮地轴线转动给特定的输出装置提供动力。行星轮传动再配合离合器和刹车装置，就可以组成一个无级变速的自动驾驶系统。行星轮传动可以用直齿或者斜齿，内齿轮或者外齿轮，或者锥齿轮。在传递过程中，可以通过增加行星
42、轮的个数来达到传递更大功率的要求。在许多情况下, 提高齿轮系中相啮合齿轮的运动精确度可以降低机构运行的噪音。修改齿轮渐开线齿形可以提高齿轮的精确度，用高精度的制造公差来保证高质量的齿轮啮合质量；提高齿面的粗糙度。但是，如果在一个传动系统的某个地方发生振动那么一个“完美”的齿轮机构将会减少振动和噪声。修正齿轮的齿廓可以避免在传动过程中由于偏差、轴的偏移、机壳的不标准而产生干涉。如果齿轮干涉不能通过修正齿廓来消除那么齿轮上的载荷应该减少。当齿轮载荷很大时，机构噪声会更大因为内部传递的齿轮发生了干涉。消除干涉可以通过改变齿高、齿侧间隙或者两者都做。齿轮变位对于重载机构和高速传动机构尤其重要。声音压力
43、水平曲线图可以很形象地说明齿轮变位可以影响齿轮机构的噪声。如果减少的量比最适宜量小的话，那么机构会产生更大的噪声，因为齿轮干涉。减少过多的齿高度噪声也会增强因为接触比例减小了。高制造公差等级的齿轮也可以实现无声传动，那样的公差等级作为齿廓的形位误差可以达到美国齿轮制造协会的质量水平。这个图表描述了速度和齿轮质量对声音压力水平的影响，还有如何减小噪声的方法。当齿轮的精度等级由美国齿轮制造协会规定的11级增加到15级时，噪声明显的减小了。但是对于商业用的传动机构来说，花费这么大的代价在降低噪声上是不划算的，因为还有别的更廉价的方式来降低噪声。 以前有个说法，为了防止齿轮干涉两个相啮合的齿轮必须经过
44、修正。齿顶高和齿侧间隙都是很常用的齿廓修正以保证齿轮不发生干涉。齿轮传动系统也需要有适当的齿侧间隙和齿根修正。在设计齿轮机构中，齿侧间隙是评定噪声的一个重要参数。必须有足够的齿侧间隙和合理的载荷、温度状况来防止齿轮的干涉，否则会产生很大的噪声。干涉是由于齿侧间隙不足造成，工作的齿面和不工作齿面同时接触上了。另一方面，过大的齿侧间隙也会产生噪声，因为在齿轮无载荷啮合周期内或回动载荷会对齿轮产生冲击。要获得合理的齿侧间隙，减少齿的个数比增加轴的中心距效果更好。减少齿数不会减少齿轮接触比例，反之增大中心距也不会。但是减少齿数会减小齿轮的挠曲疲劳，这个减小量对一个齿轮系统来说是很小的。五分钟搞定500
45、0字毕业论文外文翻译，你想要的工具都在这里!在科研过程中阅读翻译外文文献是一个非常重要的环节，许多领域高水平的文献都是外文文献，借鉴一些外文文献翻译的经验是非常必要的。由于特殊原因我翻译外文文献的机会比较多，慢慢地就发现了外文文献翻译过程中的三大利器：Google“翻译”频道、金山词霸（完整版本）和CNKI“翻译助手。具体操作过程如下： 1.先打开金山词霸自动取词功能，然后阅读文献； 2.遇到无法理解的长句时，可以交给Google处理，处理后的结果猛一看，不堪入目，可是经过大脑的再处理后句子的意思基本就明了了； 3.如果通过Google仍然无法理解，感觉就是不同，那肯定是对其中某个“常用单词”
46、理解有误，因为某些单词看似很简单，但是在文献中有特殊的意思，这时就可以通过CNKI的“翻译助手”来查询相关单词的意思，由于CNKI的单词意思都是来源与大量的文献，所以它的吻合率很高。 另外，在翻译过程中最好以“段落”或者“长句”作为翻译的基本单位，这样才不会造成“只见树木，不见森林”的误导。四大工具： 1、Google翻译： google，众所周知，谷歌里面的英文文献和资料还算是比较详实的。我利用它是这样的。一方面可以用它查询英文论文，当然这方面的帖子很多，大家可以搜索，在此不赘述。回到我自己说的翻译上来。下面给大家举个例子来说明如何用吧比如说“电磁感应透明效应”这个词汇你不知道他怎么翻译，首
47、先你可以在CNKI里查中文的，根据它们的关键词中英文对照来做，一般比较准确。 在此主要是说在google里怎么知道这个翻译意思。大家应该都有词典吧，按中国人的办法，把一个一个词分着查出来，敲到google里，你的这种翻译一般不太准，当然你需要验证是否准确了，这下看着吧，把你的那支离破碎的翻译在google里搜索，你能看到许多相关的文献或资料，大家都不是笨蛋，看看，也就能找到最精确的翻译了，纯西式的！我就是这么用的。 2、CNKI翻译： CNKI翻译助手，这个网站不需要介绍太多，可能有些人也知道的。主要说说它的有点，你进去看看就能发现：搜索的肯定是专业词汇，而且它翻译结果下面有文章与之对应（因为
48、它是CNKI检索提供的，它的翻译是从文献里抽出来的），很实用的一个网站。估计别的写文章的人不是傻子吧，它们的东西我们可以直接拿来用，当然省事了。网址告诉大家，有兴趣的进去看看，你们就会发现其乐无穷！还是很值得用的。 3、网路版金山词霸（不到1M）： 4、有道在线翻译：翻译时的速度：这里我谈的是电子版和打印版的翻译速度，按个人翻译速度看，打印版的快些，因为看电子版本一是费眼睛，二是如果我们用电脑，可能还经常时不时玩点游戏，或者整点别的，导致最终SPPEED变慢，再之电脑上一些词典（金山词霸等）在专业翻译方面也不是特别好，所以翻译效果不佳。在此本人建议大家购买清华大学编写的好像是国防工业出版社的那本英汉科学技术词典，基本上挺好用。再加上网站如：google CNKI翻译助手，这样我们的翻译速度会提高不少。具体翻译时的一些技巧（主要是写论文和看论文方面） 大家大概都应预先清楚明白自己专业方向的国内牛人，在这里我强烈建议大家仔细看完这些头上长角的人物的中英文文章，这对你在专业方向的英文和中文互译水平提高有很大帮助。 我们大家最蹩脚的实质上是写英文论文，