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1、Chapter 1: IntroductionChapter 1: Introduction1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.8. langue: Lange refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members ofa speech community.9. parole :Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual
2、use.10. competence : The ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language.: The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.12. language : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for humancommunication.features : Design features refer to the defining properties of
3、 human language thatdistinguish it from any animal system of communication.14. arbitrariness: Arbitrariness refers to no logical connection between meaning andsound.15. productivity: Users can understand and produce sentences that they have neverheard before.16. duality: Language consists of two set
4、s of structure, with lower lever of sound,which is meaningless, and the higher lever of meaning.17. displacement: Language can be used to refer to the contexts removed from theimmediate situation of the speaker no matter how far away from the topic ofconversation in time or space.18. cultural transm
5、ission: Language is culturally transmitted. It is taught and learnedfrom one generation to the next, rather than by instinct.Chapter 2: PhonologyChapter 2: Phonology1. phonic medium : The meaningful speech sound in human communication.2. phonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is c
6、oncerned with allsounds in the worlds languages.3. articulatory phonetics : It studies sounds from the speakers point of view, . how aspeaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.4. auditory phonetics: The studies sounds from the hearers point of view, . how thesounds are perceived by the
7、 hearer.5. acoustic phonetics: It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves,the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one personto another.6. voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords.7. voiceless: the way that sou
8、nds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.8. broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or soundssequences in written form.9. narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to showsounds in written form.10. diacritics: The symbols
9、 used to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.11. IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists ofletters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language.12. aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.1
10、3. manner of articulation : The manner in which obstruction is created.14. place of articulation : The place where obstruction is created.15. consonant: a speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way oranother.16. vowel : a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets wi
11、th noobstruction.17. monophthong : the individual vowel.18. diphthong : The vowel which consists of two individual vowels, and functions as asingle one.19. phone : The speech sound we use when speaking a language.20. phoneme : The smallest unit of sound in a language whichcan distinguish twosounds.2
12、1. allophone : any different forms of the same phoneme in different phoneticenvironments.22. phonology : The description of sound systems of particular languages and howsounds function to distinguish meaning.23. phonemic contrast : two similar sounds occur in the same environment anddistinguish mean
13、ing.24. complementary distribution : allophones of the same phoneme and they dontdistinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution.25. minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except one soundand occurs in the same position. The two sounds are said to form a minimal p
14、air.26. sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particularlanguage.27. assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a featureof a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.28. deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted a
15、lthough it isorthographically represented.29. suprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level ofthe segments-syllable, word, sentence.30. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates ofvibration of the vocal cords.31. intonation: When pitch, str
16、ess and sound length are tied to the sentence ratherthan the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.Chapter 3: MorphologyChapter 3: Morphology1. morphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of wordsand rules for word formation.2. open class: A group o
17、f words, which contains an unlimited number of items, andnew words can be added to it.3. closed class: A relatively few words, including conjunctions, prepositions andpronouns, and new words are not usually added to them.4. morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be dividedw
18、ithout altering or destroying its meaning.5. affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes themeaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.6. suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changesthe part of speech
19、 of a word.7. prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usuallychanges the meaning of a word to its opposite.8. bound morpheme: Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must becombined wit others. . ment.9. free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.10.
20、 derivational morpheme: Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem toform a new word.11. inflectional morpheme: A kind of morpheme, which are used to makegrammatical categories, such as number, tense and case.12. morphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine howmorphemes co
21、mbine to form words.13. compound words: A combination of two or more words, which functions as asingle words14. inflection: the morphological process which adjusts words by grammaticalmodification, . in The rains came, rain is inflected for plurality and came for pasttense.Chapter 4: SyntaxChapter 4
22、: Syntax1. syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to formsentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. category: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similarfunctions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun ph
23、rase or a verb.6. phrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are calledphrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which thephrase is built.8. head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.9. specifier: The words on the left side of
24、 the heads are said to function as specifiers.10. complement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.11. phrase structure rule: The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulatesthe arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.14. coordinati
25、on: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of thesame type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon isknown as coordination.15. subcategorization: The information about a words complement is included in thehead and termed suncategorization.16. complementi
26、zer: Words which introduce the sentence complement are termedcomplementizer.17. complement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called acomplement clause.18. complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and acomplement clause is called a complement phrase.19. matri
27、x clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded iscalled matrix clause.20. modifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of headsis called modifier.21. transformation : a special type of rule that can move an element from oneposition to another22. inv
28、ersion : the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Inflposition to a position to the left of the subject, is called inversion.23. Do insertion : In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain anovert Infl, interrogative do is inserted into an empty Infl positon
29、 to maketransformation work.24. deep structure : A level of abstract syntactic representation formed by the XPrule.25. surface structure : A level of syntactic representation after applying the necessarysyntactic movement, ., transformation, to the deep structure. (05)26. universal grammar: the inna
30、teness principles and properties that pertain to thegrammars of all human languages.Chapter 5: SemanticsChapter 5: Semantics1. semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.3. sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It isthe collection of all
31、 the features of the linguistic form. It is abstract andde-contexturalized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.4. reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physicalworld. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and
32、 thenon-linguistic world of experience.5. synonymy: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Wordsthat are close in meaning are called synonyms.6. dialectal synonyms: synonyms that are used in different regional dialects.7. stylistic synonyms: synonyms that differ in style, or
33、 degree of formality.8. collocational synonyms: Synonyms that differ in their colllocation, ., in the wordsthey go together with.9. polysemy : The same word has more than one meaning.10. homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having differentmeanings have the same form, ., different
34、words are identical in sound or spelling, orin both.11. homophones: When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.12. homographs: When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.13. complete homonymy: When two words are identical in both sound and spelling,they are complet
35、e homonyms.14. hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, moreinclusive word and a more specific word.15. superordinate: The word which is more general in meaning is called thesuperordinate.16. co-hyponyms: Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms.17. antonymy:
36、 The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning.20. relational opposites: Pairs if words that exhibit the reversal of a relationshipbetween the two items are called relational opposites. For example, husband-wife,father-son, buy-sell, let-rent, above-below.21. entailment: the relationship bet
37、ween two sentences where the truth of one isinferred from the truth of the other. . Cindy killed the dog entails the dog is dead.22. presupposition: What a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of themassage already knows. . Some tea has already been taken is a presupposition ofTake some more
38、tea.Chapter 6: PragmaticsChapter 6: Pragmatics1. pragmatics: The study of how speakers uses sentences to effect successfulcommunication.2. context: The general knowledge shared by the speakers and the hearers.3. sentence meaning: The meaning of a self-contained unit with abstract andde-contextualize
39、d features.4. utterance meaning: The meaning that a speaker conveys by using a particularutterance in a particular context.5. utterance: expression produced in a particular context with a particular intention.6. Speech Act Theory: The theory proposed by John Austin and deepened by Searle,which belie
40、ves that we are performing actions when we are speaking.7. constatives: Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thusverifiable.8. performatives: Performatives are sentences that dont state a fact or describe astate, and are not verifiable.9. locutionary act: The act of conv
41、eying literal meaning by virtue of syntax, lexiconand phonology.10. illocutionary act: The act of expressing the speakers intention and performed insaying something.11. perlocutionary act: The act resulting from saying something and the consequenceor the change brought about by the utterance.12. rep
42、resentatives: Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to betrue.13. directives: Trying to get the hearer to do something.17. cooperative Principle: The principle that the participants must first of all bewilling to cooperate in making conversation, otherwise, it would be impossible t
43、ocarry on the talk.18. conversational implicature: The use of conversational maxims to imply meaningduring conversation.Chapter 7: Language ChangeChapter 7: Language Change8. acronyms: Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words.9. protolanguage: The original form of a language fam
44、ily, which has ceased to exist.10. Language family: A group of historically related languages that have developedfrom a common ancestral language.Chapter 8: Language And SocietyChapter 8: Language And Society1. sociolinguistics: The subfield of linguistics that study language variation andlanguage u
45、se in social contexts.2. speech community: A group of people who form a community and share at leastone speech variety as well as similar linguistic norms.3. speech varieties: It refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speakeror a group of speakers.4. regional dialect: A variety of la
46、nguage used by people living in the samegeographical region.5. sociolect: A variety of language used by people, who belong to a particular socialclass.6. registers : The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type ofsituation.7. idiolect : A persons dialect of an individual speaker
47、 that combines elements,regarding regional, social, gender and age variations.8. linguistic reportoire : The totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individualconstitutes his linguistic repertoire.9. register theory : A theory proposed by American linguist Halliday, who believedthat three s
48、ocial variables determine the register, namely, field of discourse, tenor ofdiscourse and mode of discourse.10. field of discourse : the purpose and subject matter of the communicativebehavior.11. tenor of discourse: It refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question:who the particip
49、ants in the communication groups are and in what relationship theystand to each other.12. mode of discourse: It refers to the means of communication and it is concernedwith how communication is carried out.13. standard dialect: A superposed variety of language of a community or nation,usually based
50、on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.14. formality: It refers to the degree of formality in different occasions and reflectsthe relationship and conversations. According to Martin Joos, there are five stages offormality, namely, intimate, casual, consultative, formal