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1、-英语词汇学复习资料 Chapter 11. Word A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2. There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional. E.g. “woman” means Frau in German， Fe
2、mme in French and Funv in Chinese. On the other hand， the same sound /rait/ can mean right， rite and write， though denoting different things， yet have the same sound.3. The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors.（At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling pattern
3、s）a）. the internal reason is English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language.b）. Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spellingc）. Influence of the work of scribes/printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500d）. Borrowing of foreign language4. Vocabul
4、ary Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect， a given book， a given subject and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in h
5、istory.The general estimate of the present day English vocabulary is over 1 million words.5.Classification of Wordsby use frequency， by notion， by origin1）. Basic word stock the foundation of the vocabulary.1. all national character （most important） natural phenomenamost common things and phenomena
6、of the human body and relationsworld around us names of plants and animalsaction， size， domain， statenumerals， pronouns， prep. ，conj.2. stability they donate the commonest thing necessary to life， they are like to remain unchanged. Only relative， some are undergoing some changes. But the change is s
7、low.e.g. arrow， bow， chariot， knight past electricity， machine， car， plane now3. productivity they are mostly root words or monosyllabic words， they can form new words with other roots and affixes. e.g. foot football， footage， footpath， footer4. polysemy often possess more than one meaning. Become p
8、olysemous.e.g. take to move or carry from one place to anotherto remove5. collocability quite a number of set expressions， idiomatic usages， proverbial saying and otherse.g. heart a change of heart， a heart of goldNon-basic vocabulary 1. terminology technical termsphotoscanning， hepatitis， indigesti
9、on， penicillin， algebra， trigonometry， calculus2. jargon specialized vocabulary in certain professions.Bottom line， ballpark figures， bargaining chips， hold him back， hold him in， paranoid3. slang substandard words often used in informal occasionsdough and bread， grass and pot， beaver， smoky， bear，
10、catch， holler， Roger， X-rays，Certain words are labeled slang because of their usage.4. argot words used by sub-cultured groupscan-opener， dip， persuadercant， jargon ， argot are associated with， or most available to， specific groups of the population.5. dialectal words only by speakers of the dialect
11、beauty， chook， cocky， station， auld， build， coo， hame， lough， bog6. archaisms words no longer in common use or restricted in use. In older poems， legal document and religious writing or speech.7. neologism newly created words with new meaning e.g. microelectronics， futurology， AIDS， internet， E-mail
12、old meaning acquired new meaning e.g. mouse， monitor2）. Content word （notional word） denote clear notions.Functional word （empty word， form word） do not have notions of their own， express the relation between notions， words and sentences.a. Content words constitute the main body of the English vocab
13、ulary are numerous.Functional words are in a small number.b. Content words are growing.Functional words remain stable.c. Functional words do far more work of expression than content words.3）. Native words are words brought to Britain in the 15 century by the German tribes. Ango-Saxon Words，50000-600
14、00What is true of the basic word stock is also true of native world. More are1. neutral in style （not stylistical specific ）2. frequent in use （in academic fields and science French， Latin or Greek are used） （usage 70-90%）Borrowed words （loan words， borrowing） words taken over from foreign language.
15、 80% According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing， we can bring the loan words under 4 classes.1.Denizens words borrowed early and now are well assimilated into English language.e.g. port from portus（L） shift， change， shirt， pork cup from cuppa（L）2.Aliens retained their original p
16、ronunciation and spellinge.g. dcor（F） blitzkreeg（G） emir， intermez， rowtow， bazaar， rajar， status quo3.translation loans formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language.1）. Word translated according to the meaninge.g. mother tough fro
17、m lingua maternal（L）black humor from humor noirlong time no see， surplus value， master piece2）. Words translated according to the sounde.g. kulak from kyrak（Russ）lama from lama（Tib）ketchuptea4. Semantic loans their meaning are borrowed from another languagee.g. stupid old dumpnew sassydream old joy
18、and peacepioneer old explorer/person doing pioneering worknew a member of the young pioneerfresh old impertinent， sassy， cheeky Chapter 2Indo-European language family （Europe， the Near East， India）Balto Slavic Indo-Iranian Italic GermanicPrussian Persian Portuguese NorwegianLithuanian Hindi Spanish
19、IcelandiePolish Italian DanishBulgarian Roumanian SwedishSlovenian French EnglishRussian GermanAlbanian Armenian Celtic HellenicIrish GreekBretonScottish2. History （时间，历史事件，特征）1） Old English （450-1150） totally 50，000-60，000 wordsThe 1st people known to inhabit England were Celts， the language was Ce
20、ltic.The second language was the Latin of the Roman Legions.The Germanic tribes called angles， Saxons and Jutes and their language， Anglo-Saxon dominated and blotted out the Celtic. Now people refer to Anglo-Saxon as old English.At the end of 6th century， the introduction of Christianity has a great
21、 impact on the English vocabulary.The common practice was to create new words by combining two native words.In the 9th century， many Scandinavian words came into English. At least 900 words of Scandinavian are in modern English， our daily life and speech.特点： highly inflected languagecomplex endings
22、or vowel changes （full ending）2） Middle English （1150-1500） English， Latin， FrenchUntil 1066， although there were borrowings from Latin， the influence on English was mainly Germanic. But the Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English.By the end of the 13th century， English
23、 gradually come back into public areas.Between 1250 and 150 about 9000 words of French origin come into English. 75% of them are till in use today.As many as 2500 words of Dutch origin come into English.特点： fewer inflectionsleveled ending3） Modern English （1500-up to now） early modern English （1500-
24、1700）late modern English（1700-up to now）The Renaissance， Latin and Greek were recognized as the languages of the Western worlds great literary heritage.The Industrial Revolution was in the mid-17 century. With the growth of colonization， British tentacles began a stretching out of to every corner of
25、 the globe， thus enabling English to absorb words from all major languages of the world.After World War II， many new words have been created to express new ideas， inventions and scientific achievements.More words are created by means of word-formation.thousands and thousands of new words have been e
26、ntered to express new ideas inventions， and scientific achievements.more words are created by means of word-formation.in modern English， word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions English has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language.science and technology term
27、s make up about 45% of new words. words associated with life-style constitute of 24% and social and economic terms amount to over 10% .mention should be made of an opposite process of development i.e. old words falling out if use.特点： ending are almost lost.3. Three main sources new words1.The rapid
28、development of modern science and technology2.Social， economic and political changes3.The influence of other cultures and languages4. Three modes of vocabulary development1. Creation the formation of new words by using the existing materials， namely roots， affixes and other elements. （This is the mo
29、st important way of vocabulary expansion.）2. Semantic change - an old form which take on a new meaning to meet the new need.3. Borrowing to take in words from other languages.（particularly in earlier time）4. （Reviving archaic or obsolete）French 30%， Latin 8%， Japanese Italian 7%， Spanish 6%， German
30、Greek 5%， Russian Yiddish 4%Chapter 31. Morpheme A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. （The smallest functional unit in the composition of words.）2.Morph A morpheme must be realized by discrete units. These actual spoken minimal carriers of meaning are morphs.3.Monomorphenic word
31、s morphemes are realized by single morphs.4.AllomorphSome morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position. Such alternative morphs are allomorphemes. E.g. the morpheme of plurality （-s） has a number if allomorphemes in different sound context， e.g. in cats/s/， in bags/z/， i
32、n matches/iz/.5. Free morphemes or Free root The morphemes have complete meaning and van be used as free grammatical units in sentences， e.g. cat， walk. They are identical with root words. morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free.6. Bound Morphemes The morphemes c
33、annot occur as separate words. They are bound to other morphemes to form words， e.g. recollection （re+collect+ion） collect free morpheme re-and ion are bound morphemes. （include bound root and affix） Bound morphemes are found in derived words.7. Bound root A bound root is that part of the word that
34、carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root， it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example： it conveys the meaning of “say or speak” as a Latin root， but not as a word. With the prefix pre-（=before） we obtain the verb
35、predict meaning “tell beforehand”。 Contradict “ speak against”。 Bound roots are either Latin or Greek.Although they are limited in number， their productive power is amazing.8. Affixes Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. Almost affixes are boun
36、d morphemes.9. Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional， thus known as inflectional morphemes. The number of inflectional affixes is small and stable.a. There is the regular plural suffix -s（-es） which
37、is added to nouns such as machines， desks.b. Simple present for the third person singular. s（-es）c. The possessive case of nouns. sd. er and est to show comparative and superlative degreee. The past tense marker edf. ing to form present participles or gerunds.10. Derivational morphemes or Derivation
38、al affixes Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words.11. Prefixes Prefixes are affixes that come before the word， such as， pre+war， sub+sea12. Suffixes suffixes are affixes that come after the word， for instance， blood+y.13. Root A root is the basic form of a word
39、， which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. （What remains of a word after the removal of all affixes.） .e.g. “internationalists” removing inter-， -al-， -ist， -s， leaves the root nation.14. Stem a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. E.g. “internationalists”， nation
40、is a root and a stem as well.a stem may consist of a single root or two roots and a root plus a affix.a stem can be a root or a form bigger than a root. Chapter 4The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation.Not all the words that are produced by applying the rules
41、are acceptable.Rules only provide a constant set of models from which new words are created from day to day.Rules themselves are not fixed but undergo changes.affixation 30%-40% compounding 28%-30% conversion 26% shortening 8%-10% （clipping and acronymy） blending and others 1%-5%1. Affixation （Deriv
42、ation） the formation of words by adding word forming or derivational affixes to stems. （derivative派生词）According to their position， affixation falls into： prefixation and suffixation.1）. Prefixation the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. It does not change the word-class of the stem
43、but change its meaning.1. Negative prefixes a- （abnormal）， dis- （disobey）， in- （il-， ir-， im-） （injustice）， non- （non-smoker）， un- （unwilling） un- are the most productive and can usually replace in- or dis- with adj.2. Reversative prefixes de- （decentralize）， dis- （disunite）， un- （unwrap）3. Pejorati
44、ve prefixes mal- （maltreat）， mis- （mistrust）， pseudo- （pseudo-science）4. Prefixes of degree or size arch- （archbishop）， extra-（extra-strong）， hyper-（hyperactive）， macro- （macrocosm）， micro- （microcomputer）， mini- （mini-election）， out- （outlive）， over- （overweigh）， sub- （subheading）， super- （superfre
45、eze）， sur- （surtax）， ultra- （ultra-conservative）， under-（underdeveloped）5. Prefixes of orientation and attitude anti- （anti-nuclear）， contra- （contraflow）， counter-， pro-（pro-student）6. Locative prefixes extra- （extraordinary）， fore- （forehead）， inter- （inter-city）， intra- （intra-party）， tele-， tran
46、s-7. Prefixes of time and order ex- （ex-wife）， fore- （foretell）， pre-， re- （reconsider）8. Number Prefixes bi-， multi- （poly-） （multi-purpose）， semi- （hemi-）， tri- （tricycle）， uni-（mono-） （uniform）9. Miscellaneous prefixes auto-， neo- （neo-Nazi）， pan- （pan-European）， vice-2）. Suffixation Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. Change the grammatical function of stems （the word class）. Suffixes can be grouped on a grammatical basis.Noun suffixesDenominal nouns （名词+suffix 名词）a. Concrete -eer （engineer）， -er （teenager）， -e