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1、学习必备欢迎下载Chapter one The basic concepts of words and vocabulary 1.1 The definition of a word （1）一个最小的自由形态（2）一个发音的集合体（3）一个意义单位（4）能独自影响句子的形式因此，我们能说 “ 词语是语言最小的自由形式，拥有固定的声音和意义以及句法作用。”1.2 vocabulary All the words in a language make up its vocabulary. The general estimate of the English vocabulary is over
2、one million words. 1.3Sound and meaning 词语是一个符号，代表着世界上其他的事物。每种世界文化已经赞成一定的读音将代表一定的人，事，地方，特性，过程，行动，当然是在语言系统之外。这种象征性的联系几乎总是主观的，并且 “ 在代表事物和思想的声音和实际的事物和思想之间没有法定关系。”1.4 sound and form 在古英语中，口语比今天更忠实地代表书面语，但随着语言的发展，越来越多的不同出现在口语和书面语之间。有以下几点原因：1.内因是因为英语字母表采用罗马字母，罗马字母没有独立的字母代表每个读音，精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归
3、纳总结 - - - - - - -第 1 页，共 39 页学习必备欢迎下载因此一些字母代表两个读音或者组合在一起发音。2.另一个原因是发音比拼写的变化快，在一些时候还拉开了距离。在最近五百年里，尽管口语发音已经出现了显著的变化，却没有相应的拼写变化。Another reason for this is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart. 3.第三个原因是一些早期的书写员发明了一些不
4、同Those scribes had made some change to the word spelling 4.到 1500年年末，印刷已经变得非常普及。它有助于固定单词的拼写。同时，读音继续如往常变化，以此带来了更多的不同。In the late 1500, printing became well established. It helped to freeze and standardize the spelling of words. Meanwhile, sounds continued to change as usual, thus bringing more differ
5、ence. 5.当英语从其他语言中借鉴单词时，它同样借用了拼写。早期的借词被同化，后来则不再遵守英语的发音规则和拼写规则最后得出的结论是；英语的书写是发音形式不完善的代表the written form of English is, there for , an imperfect representation of the phonemic elements of the spoken language. 1.5 classification of words 根据使用频率，单词可以分为基础词和非基础词。可以根据概念分成实词和虚词，可以根据来源分为本地词和借词。1. basic word s
6、tock and nonbasic vocabulary 基础词和非基础词基础词 的特征：1. All national character所有的民族特征（基础词代表我们身边世界中最常见的事物和非凡的现象。这是所有说那种语言的人都要知道的，这包括和下面方面相关的词，包括自然现象，认得身体和亲属关系，动植物，动作、尺码、范围、状态，数词、代词、介词、连词）2. Stability 稳定性（基础词已经被使用若干世纪，例如人火山水太阳月亮。由于它们代表生活需要的普遍事物，它们很可能保持不变）3. Productivity 多产性（基础词大多是词根。它们每个都能单独使用同时可以和其他词根或词缀一起构成
7、新4. polysemy 多义性5. collocability 搭配性全民性是区别通用词和其他词的最重要特征非基础词 ， 没有上面描述特征的词，不属于语言的正常核心，它们包括下面：1. Terminology 专业术语（包括特定学科和学术领域的技术术语）精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 2 页，共 39 页学习必备欢迎下载2. Jargon 行话（用于特定的词汇，通过特定艺术，科学，商业和专业领域的成员在彼此之间交流）3. Slang 俚语4. Argot 黑话（通常是指罪犯的黑话。他的应用被限制在下层文化团体，外人很难理解他）5.
8、 Dialectal words 方言6. Archaisms 古语（是曾经一度普遍使用现在却被限制使用的词和形式。他们主要出现在古诗，法律文件，宗教作品和演讲中）7. Neologisms 新词语2. content words and functional words 内容词和功能词内容词：Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They are nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals. 内容词显示清楚的概念，因为被认为是概念词。他
9、们包括名词，动词 ,形容词，副词和数词 . 功能词 : Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words. As their chief function is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as between sentences, they are known as form words. Prepositions, conjunc
10、tions, auxiliaries and article belong to this category. 功能词没有他们自己的概念。因此，他们也称作 “ 空词” 。由于他们的主要功能是去表达概念间的关系，词语间和句子间的关系，他们被认为是“ 结构词 ” 。介词，连词，辅助词和冠词属于这一类3. native words and borrowed words 本地词和外来词本地词 : 本地词在五世纪由日尔曼人带到英国，盎格鲁，撒克逊，还有朱特人，因此被认为是盎格鲁撒克逊词汇。盎格鲁撒克逊源头词数量很少，大约在50000 到 60000之间，但是他们构成了基本词储的主流，并且处在语言的核心。
11、因此，真正的基础词其实也是真正的本地词。和基本词储的特征相分离，和外来词相对比，本地词还有两个其他特征：1)Neutral in style 风格中性于本地词表示人类社会中最常见事物，他们被所有人使用，在所有地方使用，在所有场合使用，在任何时候使用。因此，他们没有独特的特点2)Frequent in use 频繁使用外来词 : 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 3 页，共 39 页学习必备欢迎下载外来词分为四类：1. Denizens 同化词Denizens are words borrowed early in the past a
12、nd now are well assimilated into English Language. In other words they have come to conform to the English way of pronunciation and spelling. 2. Aliens 非同化词Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. These words are immediately recognizable as foreign in
13、origin. 3. Translation loans 译借词 (翻译借词是从英语中的现有材料中取材构成，但是模仿其他语言的构成方式，包括words translated according to the meaning 和Words translated according to the sound) 4. semantic loans 借义词English has borrowed a now meaning for an existing word in the language Chapter two the development of the English vocabulary
14、 2.1 the Indo-European language family 印欧语系Balto-Slavic: Prussian, Lithuanian, Polish, Czech, Bulgarian, Slovenian, Russian Indo-Iranian: Persian, Bengali, Hindi, Romany,( 后三个源自 Sanskrit) Eastern set Armenian Are the sole modern languages in the two respective families Albanian Celtic: Scottish, Iri
15、sh, Welsh, Cornish, Breton, Pictish Italic: Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian, Roumanian Hellenic: Greek Germanic: Scandinavian languages (Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish, Swedish), German, Dutch, Flemish, English Hittite Tocharian find no descendants of their own Western set 2.2 three phases of the
16、 historical development 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 4 页，共 39 页学习必备欢迎下载The first peoples known to inhabit the land were Celts. Their languages were dialects of still another branch of the Indo-European language Family. 1. old English (450-1150) The Germanic tribes, called Angles, S
17、axons, Frisians and Jutes invaded the rich lowland. Their language, known as Anglo- Saxon, dominated and almost totally blotted out the Celtic. Old English (the Anglo-Saxon) has a vocabulary of about 50000 to 60000 words, which are almost monogeneous and entirely Germanic with only a few borrowings
18、from Latin and Scandinavian. Old English was a highly inflected language. Nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs had complex systems of endings or vowel changes or both, which digger greatly form the language that we use today. 2. Middle English (1150-1500) The Norman Conquest produced two
19、great results. First, it brought to an insular nation a new and larger continental culture. Second, Norman French became the polite speech. 3. Modern English (1500 up to the present) Early Modern English (1500-1700) In the early period of Modern English, Europe saw a new upsurge in learning ancient
20、Greek and Roman classics, which is known as the Renaissances. Late Modern English (1700 up to the present) Since the mid-seventeenth century, England experienced the Bourgeois Revolution followed by the Industrial Revolution and rose to be a great economic power. Thousands of new words have been cre
21、ated to express new ideas, inventions, and scientific achievements. 2.3 General Characteristics 1. Receptivity, adaptability and heterogeneity( 容纳性，适应性，多样性 ) 2. Simplicity of inflection ( 简化) As one scholar notes, Old English was characterized by “full endings”, Middle English by “leveled endings”,
22、and Modern English by “lost endings”3. Relatively fixed word-order 2.4 Foreign elements in the English vocabulary Latin, Greek, French, Scandinavian, Other foreign elements: Italian, German, Dutch, Spanish and Portuguese, Celtic 2.5 Growth of contemporary English vocabulary There are three main sour
23、ces of new words: 1. The rapid development of modern science and technology 2.Social, economic and political changes 3. The influence of other cultures and language 2.6 Modes of vocabulary development Modern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semantic change, borrowing(创造新
24、词，旧词变义，借用外来词) 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 5 页，共 39 页学习必备欢迎下载Chapter three Morphological Structure of English Words 3.1Morphemes 词素Morphemes: minimal meaningful units 3.2 Morphs and Allomorphs 词素形式和词素变体Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units kno
25、wn as morphs. 语言中最小的不可再分的意义单位是词素morpheme( 又可称为形位， 语素)，词素是抽象的，它是通过词素形式morph 变现出来的。词素还具有变体形式，称为allomorph(词素变体 ) All allomorph refers to a member of a set of morphs, which represent one morpheme. We class morph together as allomorphs of a single morpheme. Many morphemes can have more than one allomorph
26、 33Classfying Morphemes Free versus bound 自由词素和粘附词素Derivational versus inflectional 派生词素和曲折词素Lexical versus grammatical 词汇语素和语法词素1. Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are free. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences
27、. Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound. Free morphemes are all roots.( 这里的 root 是 free root) Bound morphemes consist of either roots or affixes. （这里的 root 是 bound root）2. Derivational versus inflectional morphemes Morphemes which are used to derive new words are known as derivati
28、onal morphemes. Inflectional morphemes indicate the syntactic relationship between words and function as grammatical markers. Inflectional morphemes are confined to suffixes.( 包括名词复数 s,es, 动词三单 s,es, 名词所有格 s,形容词比较级 er,est,规则动词过去式和过去分词 ed,动词现在分词和动名词ing) 3. Content versus grammatical morphemes Content
29、 morphemes are lexical morphemes which are used to derive new words, so also known as derivational morphemes. Grammatical morphemes encompass both inflectional affixes and free morphemes such as in, and, do, have, they, while, where, but and that, which are traditionally called the functional words.
30、 3.4Identifying morphemes 3.5Morpheme and word-formation 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 6 页，共 39 页学习必备欢迎下载In word-formation, morphemes are conventionally labeled root, stem, base and affix. 1. Affix Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or fu
31、nction. All affixes are bound morphemes. Affixes can fall into prefix and suffix. 2. Root, Stem and Base A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. A root is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes
32、have been removed. A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in iron or of two root morphemes as in handcuff. A stem is that part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed. In other words, any form to which an inflectional affix is attached is a stem.A base
33、 is used in this book as an all-purpose term, referring to a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. It can be a root or stem.Chapter four Word Formation 构词法： affixation(加缀法 ) compounding(复合法 ) conversion（词性的转换）blending(拼 缀法 ) Clipping （ 截短 法）acronymy （ 首 字 母 缩 略 法）back-formation（逆生法）sound r
34、eduplication（声音重复）4.1 Affixation 加缀法1. prefixation 前缀Negative prefixes 表示否定的前缀a-dis- in- non- un- Reversative or privative prefixes 逆反前缀de- dis- un- Pejorative prefixes 贬义前缀mal- mis- pseudo- Prefixes of degree or size 表示范围和程度的前缀arch- co- extra- hyper- macro- micro- mini- out- over- sub- super- ser-
35、ultra- under- Prefixes of orientation and attitude 表示方向和态度的前缀anti- contra- counter- pro- Locative prefixes 方位前缀extra - fore- inter- intra- super- tele- trans- Prefixes of time and order ex- fore- post- pre- re- Number prefixes bi- di- multi- semi- tri- uni- 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - -
36、- -第 7 页，共 39 页学习必备欢迎下载Conversion prefixes 专类词缀a- be- en- miscellaneous prefixes 混杂的词缀auto- neo- pan- proto- vice- 2. suffixation 后缀法noun suffixes 名词词缀1) denominal nouns 词缀加在名词后，构成名词conc人 ete 构成具体名词 -eer -er -ess -ette -let ster abstract 构成抽象名词 dom ery -ful -hood -ing -ism -ship 2) deverbal nouns 词缀
37、加在动词后，构成名词-ant -ee -ent -er -age -al -ance -ation -ence -ing 3) de-adjective nouns 词缀加载名词后，构成名词-ity -ness 4)noun and adjective suffixes 名词和形容词后缀A small number of suffixes, when added to bases related to human beings or nationality names, yield words that can be used both as nouns and adjectives. -es
38、e -an -ist -ite adjective suffixes形容词后缀1) denominal suffixes在名词后加缀，成为形容词-ful -ish -less -like -ly -y -al -ial -ical -esque -ic -ous -eous -ious -uous 2) deverbal suffixes 在动词后加缀，成为形容词-able -ible -ative -ive -sive 3) adverb suffixes在副词后加缀，成为形容词-ward -wise 4) verb suffixes 在动词后加缀，成为形容词-ate -en - ify -
39、ize -ise 4.2 compounding复合法Compounding is the formation of new words by joining two or more bases. 1. Characteristics of compounds复合词的特点1) phonological features 语音方面的特点In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first constituent. 一般情况下，复合词重音都在前面。注意区分：a hot house 温室a hot house 热房子2) semantic
40、features语义上的特点Every compound should express single idea just as one word. 3) Grammatical features 语法特征Compounds tend to fill a single grammatical slot in a sentence. Compound nouns show their plural forms by taking inflectional s at the end. 4) Orthographical features 正确拼写特征In most cases, compounds
41、are written wither solid or hyphenated. Three forms: flowerpot flower-pot flower pot formation 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 8 页，共 39 页学习必备欢迎下载2. Formation of compounds Noun compounds Adjective compounds Verb compounds 4.3 conversion 词性的转换Conversion is the formation of new words by
42、converting words of one class to another class, by turning words of one part of speech to those of another part speech in traditional terms. New words are new only in grammatical sense. Since words that are make do not change in morphological structure but in function, process in also known as funct
43、ional shift. 1. conversion to nouns Deverbal 动词转换为名词eg.lauf De-adjectively 形容词转换为名词 eg.white Miscallaneous conversion 其他词性的转换 eg. a given 2. conversion to verbs Denominal 名词转换为动词eg. pocket the money put the money in the pocket De-adjectival 形容词转换为动词eg. wet his shoes Miscellaneous conversion 其他词性的转换e
44、g.we downed a few beers. 3. conversion to adjectives 大部分情况下都是名词转换为形容词。名词在转换为名词时会发生一些变化：Voiceless to voiced consonant 清辅音转换为浊辅音eg.advice/-s/ advice/-z/ Initial to end stress 重音由词首变到词尾eg. conduct con duct 4.4 blending拼缀法Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word p
45、lus a part of another word. 有四种形式：1. head + tail eg. autocide from (automobile+suicide) 2. head+head eg. somsat from(communication+satellite) 3. head+word eg. medicare from(medical +care) 4. word+tail eg. lunarnaut from(lunar+astronant) 4.5 Clipping 截短法It is the formation of new words by cutting a p
46、art off the original and using what remains instead. 有四种形式：1. Front clipping Eg. quake (earthquake) 2. Back clipping Eg. deli（delicatessen ）3. Front and back clipping 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 9 页，共 39 页学习必备欢迎下载Eg. flu(influenza) 4. Phrase clipping Eg. pop(popular music) 4.6Acro
47、nymy 首字母缩略法1. initialisms (按照字母发音来读，如VOA) 2. acronyms(拼读，如 AIDS) 4.7back-formation 逆生法Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. Back-formation is therefore the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes, so called because many of the removed endings are
48、not suffixes bur inseparable parts of the words. Eg. begger-beg emotion-emote babysitter-babysit Lazy -laze 4.8sound reduplication 声音重复As the term indicates, sound reduplication is the formation of compound words by repeating the same element with little or no change. Words made in this way are know
49、n as reduplicatives. Eg. bow-wow(of dog) ping-pong dilly-dally tip-top 4.9commonization of proper names 专有名词转化的词1. names of people 2. names of places 3. names of books 4. tradenames 商品名Chapter five Word Meaning and Componential Analysis 5.1Wording MeaningIt is agreed that a word is the combination o
50、f word-form and its meaning. “ Form” refers to both its pronunciation and spelling. “ Meaning” is what the form stands for. 1. Reference所指关系Reference is the relationship between language and the world. Only a connection has been established between the linguistic sign and a referent, does the sign b