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1、Cultural PatternsChapter 7 LEARNING OBJECTIVESUnderstand the definition of cultural patterns.Identify the components of cultural patterns. Perceive the cross-cultural differences in beliefs, values, norms, and social practices. Distinguish the various theories concerning cultural patterns: Edward T.
2、 Hall, Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, and Hofstede.Chapter Outline Cultural PatternsBeliefsValuesHuman NaturePerson-NatureComponents Edward T HallsContext - Culture TheoryK l u c k h o h n a n d Strodtbecks Value OrientationDefinition NormsS o c i a l PracticesTime Activity Relational Individualism and C
3、ollectivismU n c e r t a i n t y AvoidancePower distanceM a s c u l i n i t y FemininityHigh-contextLow-contextW a y s o f ThinkingW a y s o f ActingHofstedes Dimensions of Cultural VariabilityCULTURAL DIFFERENCESFOODCLOTHINGAPPEARANCEVISIBLE CULTUREARAB WOMENINDIAN WOMENCHINESE WOMENCULTURAL PATTER
4、NSWAYS OF THINKINGWAYS OF ACTINGINVISIBLE CULTURECHINESE VALUES:PATIENCEHONOURHARMONYAMERICAN VALUES:EQUALITYFREEDOMACHIEVEMENTDIFFERENT WAYS OF THINKINGReligious beliefsnBuddhism: life is suffering/suffering comes from desire.nIslam: There is one and only one god. Muhammad is the prophet. Koran is
5、the sacred book covering everything.nChristianity: Jesus is the son of God. His salvation is to save people.Pilgrimage to Mecca Cultural patternsS o c i a l Practices Norms Beliefs ValuesText B: Components of Cultural Patterns A belief is an idea that people assume to be true about the world. For ex
6、ample:1) a widely shared belief dates back to the time when Europeans believed that the earth was flat2) a belief for many European Americans is that in “reality” there is a separation between the physical and spiritual worlds.3)Members of the European culture see humans as separate from nature. Bas
7、ed on this set of beliefs about the world, European Americans have set out to control nature instead of living in harmony with nature like the Chinese. BeliefsValues Values involve what a culture regards as good or bad, right or wrong, fair or unfair, just or unjust, beautiful or ugly, clean or dirt
8、y, valuable or worthless, appropriate or inappropriate, and kind or cruel. Values can be classified as primary, secondary, and tertiary.生命诚可贵，生命诚可贵，爱情价更高，爱情价更高，若为自由故，若为自由故，二者皆可抛。二者皆可抛。Culture values define what is worthwhile to die for, what is worth protecting, what frightens people, and what prope
9、r subjects to study and which deserve ridicule.Americans are encouraged to express their feelings outwardly and taught not to be timid about letting people know you are upset.Chinese are socialized not to openly express their own personal emotions, especially the strong negative one.“A harsh word dr
10、opped from the tongue cannot be brought back by a coach and six horses.”Table 8 Schwartzs Value TypesnApplying the table 8 to different cultures, one can see that Americans value achievement, Chinese value power, Westerners value self-direction, Asians value conformity. nValues from culture to cultu
11、re are seen as positive or negative and their strength or importance differ accordingly.nAmericans value youth rather than old age. Koreans, Japanese people, etc. argue that respects for elders is positive value and it is very intensely held.nIt would be possible after studying any particular cultur
12、e to determine its most important values. NormsnNorms are the socially shared expectations of appropriate behaviors.nNorms are linked to the beliefs and value of a culture.nNorms, like values, can vary within a culture in terms of their importance and intensity.nNorms may change over a period of tim
13、e, whereas beliefs and values tend to be much more enduring.nNorms exist for a wide variety of behaviors.nBecause people are expected to behave according to their cultures norms, they therefore come to see their own norms as constituting the “right” way of communicating.Social PracticesnSocial pract
14、ices are the predictable behavior patterns that members of a culture typically follow. Thus, social practices are the outward manifestations of beliefs, values, and norms.nInformal social practices, such as eating, sleeping, dressing, working, etc. are so commonplace within a culture that the subtle
15、 details about how they are accomplished are seldom noticed.nFormal social practices, that is to say the rituals, ceremonies, structured routines, such as saluting the flag, praying in the church, etc. are typically performed publicly and collectively.nAll members of a culture do not necessary follo
16、w that cultures “typical” social practice, such as the changing of Chinese traditional wedding ceremony.CASE 41 Getting Frustrated This case can reflect different norms in different cultures. Norms are the socially shared expectations of appropriate behaviors. In this case, much of the business done
17、 in Saudi Arabia depends on a middleman and having a middleman is a norm there. In addition, Saudis believe that God gave us multifunctional hands, and the left one and the right one have different functions. What is more, Saudis have a number of norms related to restricting male and female interact
18、ions. All these above make perfect sense to Saudis but not to Jay, an American businessman. Westerners norms concerning these are totally different. Thus, Jay and Saudis had communicative problems.Text C: Edward T. Halls Context-culture theory1 The definition of context: “the information that surrou
19、nds an event; it is inextricably（无法摆脱地） bound up with the meaning of the event.” 2 Categorization of high-context culture and low-context culture depending on the degree to which meaning comes from the settings or from the words being exchanged. Cultures in which less has to be said or written becau
20、se more of the meaning is in the physical environment or already shared by people or the ones in which most of information is already in the person, while very little is in the coded, explicitly transmitted part of the message, are labeled high-context culture. High-Context Culture Tea Ceremony High
21、 contextnNative Americans, Latin Americans, Japanese, Chinese, Koreans are typical examples of high context culture.nPeople are very homogeneous with regard to experience, information networks, and the like.nmany of the meanings are not conveyed by words;nare more often found in traditional cultures
22、 which change very little over time;nmeanings are conveyed by non-verbal codes, gestures or even silence;nspace is also used in communication.nHigh-context cultures tend to be more aware of their surroundings and their environments and rely on them.High contextnFor instance, statements of affection,
23、 such as “I love you” are rare because the message is conveyed by the context.Low-Context Culture Cultures in which little of the meaning is determined by the context because the message is encoded in the explicit code or the ones in which the mass of information is vested in the explicit code are l
24、abeled low-context culture.An American standing on chair in restaurantgiving speech at his leaving his hometown low contextnGermans, Swiss and Americans are typical examples of high context culture.nPeople are less homogeneous and each time they interact with others they need detailed background inf
25、ormation.nVerbal messages contain most of the information and very little is shown in the context or the participants.nLow-context people feel uncomfortable with vagueness and ambiguity often associated with limited data.Americans fascination with languagenAmericans depend more on spoken words than
26、on nonverbal behavior to convey messages. They think it is important to be able to “speak up” and “say what is on their mind.” They admire a person who has a moderately large vocabulary and who can express herself clearly and shrewdly. Problems PosednHigh-context people are apt to become impatient a
27、nd irritated when low-context culture people insist on giving them information they dont need.nChinese communicate by not stating things directly while Americans usually do the opposite-spell it out.ACTIVITY: REFLECTIONW h e r e i s t h e misunderstanding?Chinese Policeman: Sir?British Superior: Yes
28、, what is it?Chinese Policeman: My mother is not very well, sir.British Superior: So?Chinese Policeman: She has to go into hospital, sir.British Superior: Well, get on with it. What do you want?Chinese Policeman: On Thursday, sir.British Superior: Bloody hell, man. What do you want?Chinese Policeman
29、: Nothing, sir.Measurements to compare cultural values nValue orientationsnCultural dimensions Text D: Kluckhohn and Strodtbecks value orientationa.Human nature orientation b.Person-nature orientation c.Time orientation d.Activity orientation e.Relational orientation a. Human natureThe human nature
30、orientation deals with the inborn character of human nature.(1) evil but perfectible(2) a mixture of good and evil(3) good but corruptible(易腐化的) (4) evil but unchangeable(5) neutral with respect to good and evil(6) good and unchangeableGood 人之初，性本善，性相近，习相远，苟不教，性乃迁。Evil nAdam and Eve, the parents of
31、human, have committed sin, so humans born with sin. Evil nAmericans used to believe people are intrinsically（从本质上） evil.nThey (Middle-class Americans) now believe that they are the mixture of good and evil and they are “perfectible”.nThey may get saved following certain rules, with constant hard wor
32、k, control, educationb. Person-nature(1) subjugation to naturenNature worshipping is a universal practice in human childhood civilization.nGod of sun, moon, wind, rain, tree, flower(2) harmony with naturenMen live in harmony with universe.(3) mastery with naturenAdam was ordered to master the other
33、beings.Harmony C. Time orientationnThe temporal focus of human life can be directed towards the past, the present, or the future.nA much broader concept of timenPeople in any culture always cherish one over the other.Value-past OrientationnPast orientation cultures believe strongly in the significan
34、ce of prior events.nPast should be the guide for making decisions and determining truth.n以史为鉴n忘记历史等于背叛Historical themes are very popular in past orientation cultures.Value-present OrientationnPresent orientation cultures hold that the moment has the most significance.nFor them, the future is vague,
35、ambiguous, and unknown, what is real exists in the here and now. nNavajo Indians of northern Arizona: here and now is real; the future and the past have little reality.Navajo IndiansValue-future OrientationnFuture orientation cultures, such as the U.S.,emphasize the future and expect it to be grande
36、r than the present.nIf at first you dont succeed, try, try, and try again.nYesterday is not ours to recover, but tomorrow is ours to win or lose. Future themes are popular in Hollywood.D. Activity OrientationnValue-doing nValue-beingnValue-being-in-becoming Value-doing Orientation（做事）nDoing oriented
37、 cultures emphasize the external accomplishments and material success. High values was placed on “action and efficiency”. Actions speak louder than words. What has she or he accomplished?Value-doing OrientationValue-being Orientation (做人)nBeing-oriented cultures emphasize different roles of the peop
38、le. This is static and people are satisfied with what they have. n中国人也是讲究做人尤胜于做事。而做人，做好人是社会之期望。做人就是首先做个好父亲，好母亲，好丈夫，好儿子，好妻子，好女儿，之后才能成为社会上的栋梁之材 贾玉新，跨文化交际学 严于利己，宽以待人。 己之不欲，勿施于人。 人敬我一尺，我敬人一丈。 Value-being OrientationValue-being-in-becoming Orientation (修心)nBeing-in-becoming oriented cultures emphasize wh
39、o we are, not what we have accomplished. nBuddhist monks spend their lives in meditation to develop the self fully. Value-being-in-becoming OrientationE. Relational orientationnValue - Individualism Orientation nValue - Linearity Orientation nValue - Collaterality Orientation Value-individualism Ori
40、entationnIndividuals goals and objectives take priority over group goals and objectives. nIndividuals are seen as unique, separate entities. Value-individualism OrientationValue-linearity OrientationnFocus on the group, with group goals taking priority over individual goalsnEmphasize the continuity
41、of the group through timenSpecific individuals are important only for their group membershipsnAristocracy(贵族统治) in many European countries Value-linearity OrientationValue-collaterality（关联性） OrientationnFocus on an individuals most immediate group membershipnThe goals of the group take precedence ov
42、er those of the individual.nThe identification of Japanese people with the company for which they work or university from which they graduatednTeamwork CASE 43 The Improvement Does Not WorkThis case can reflect one of Kluckhohn and Strodtbecks value orientation-relational orientation. Relational ori
43、entation has three potential types: individualism, linearity and collaterality.In this case, following their individualistic orientations, Mr. Patterson and Mr. Wyman were perfectly comfortable with the idea of creating team leaders within the individual sales groups. However, as Park Young Sam ment
44、ions, doing so upset the harmony of the groups, which in turn led to poor performance. In the US, workers are often motivated by the opportunity for promotion and advancement as this serves the individualistic drive for individual achievement. In collectivistic cultures, however, workers may be moti
45、vated by being a part of a cohesive and productive team. Text E: Hofstedes cultural dimensionsnIndividualism Collectivism nUncertainty avoidance nPower distance nMasculinity Femininity 1 Individualism Collectivism nIn the individualistic culture, the interest of the individual prevails over the inte
46、rests of the group.nIn the collectivistic culture, the interest of the group prevails over the interests of the individual.nOn the collectivist side, we find societies in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups.Poor Richards Almanack，又叫穷查理年鉴。它是由美国资本主义精神最完美的代表本杰
47、明富兰克林所写，他作的年鉴是作为一个虚构的理查德德桑德斯(因此叫“穷理查德”)的著作从17331758年在费城年年发表。这些年鉴在殖民地居民中极受欢迎。典型的年鉴包含有日历、天气预测，忠告、食谱以及其它许多有用的知识。穷理查德的谚语、格言和箴言有的是他自己创作的，有的不是。它们使富兰克林实用、宽容和今人快活的妙语和哲学得到传播普及。班本杰明富兰克林【17061790】是有史以来最杰出的美国人之一。他是作家、印刷商、政治家、外交家、教育家、发明家、哲学家、幽默大师、企业家、店主、公民领袖、科学家、自学成才者、公务员、民族英雄，富兰克林尝试了各种事业并在所有这些方面都取得辉煌的成就。 Chines
48、e Proverbs n众人拾柴火焰高。n三个臭皮匠顶个诸葛亮。n在家靠父母，出门靠朋友。American heroes: individual power Lonely heroes: Chinese heroes: U.S. China NameBill Gates Li JiachengBasic unit of the societyIndividualFamilyType of family Nuclear family Extended familyI-cultureI-less culture American dream ndemocracy, freedom, justice
49、, fairness, equal chance, equal rights, opportunity to get success, fame and wealthnThe American dream is the idea held by many in the United States of America that through hard work, courage and determination one can achieve prosperity. nIt deals with a societys tolerance for ambiguity. nCase Analy
50、sis: P236 nIt indicates to what extent a culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations. 2 Uncertainty avoidance ( (对不确定因素的回避程度对不确定因素的回避程度) )n High uncertainty avoidance: a lower tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity, higher levels of anxiety, g