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1、精选优质文档-倾情为你奉上1.3TheCharacteristicsofFluidsconstituent:组成的;tangential:切向的;restrain:限制、约束;equilibrium:平衡,均衡;interface:相互关系、分界面;molecule:微小颗粒、分子;continuum:连续体;vessel:容器;tar:焦油、柏油;pitch:树脂;imperceptibly:察觉不到的,细微的;restore:恢复;subside:下沉、沉淀、减退、衰减;hypothetically:假设地、假想地;sphere:球、球体;microvolume:微元体积;rarest:最
2、稀罕的,虽珍贵的1.3TheCharacteristicsofFluids流体的特征Afluidisasubstancewhichmayflow;thatis,itsconstituentparticlesmaycontinuouslychangetheirpositionsrelativetooneanother.Moreover,itoffersnolastingresistancetothedisplacement,howevergreat,ofonelayeroveranother.Thismeansthat,ifthefluidisatrest,noshearforce(thatis
3、aforcetangentialtothesurfaceonwhichitacts)canexistinit.Asolid,ontheotherhand,canresistashearforcewhileatrest;theshearforcemaycausesomedisplacementofonelayeroveranother,butthematerialdoesnotcontinuetomoveindefinitely.Inafluid,however,shearforcesarepossibleonlywhilerelativemovementbetweenlayersisactua
4、llytakingplace.Afluidisfurtherdistinguishedfromasolidinthatagivenamountofitowesitsshapeatanyparticulartimetothatofavesselcontainingit,ortoforceswhichinsomewayrestrainitsmovement.流体是可以流动的物质,也就是说,组成流体的质点可以连续的改变它们的相对位臵。而且,不管层与层之间的相对位移有多大都不会产生持久的抵抗力。这意味着流体在静止状态下是不会存在剪切力的(剪切力是与其作用表面相切的力)。另一方面,固体在静止时却可以抵抗
5、剪切力,其中的剪切力也可以使层与层之间发生相对位移,但是固体材料却不一定会有连续的运动。然而在流体中,只有当层与层之间有相对运动产生时才会有剪切力存在。流体和固体的进一步区别还在于在特定的时刻,确定数量的流体其形状取决于承载它的容器,或者取决于一些限制其运动的力。Thedistinctionbetweensolidsandfluidsisusuallyclear,buttherearesomesubstancesnoteasilyclassified.Somefluids,forexample,donotfloweasily:thicktarorpitchmayattimesappeartob
6、ehavelikeasolid.Ablockofsuchasubstancemaybeplacedontheground,but,althoughitsflowwouldtakeplaceveryslowly,yetoveraperiodoftime-perhapsseveraldays-itwouldspreadoverthegroundbytheactionofgravity,thatis,itsconstituentparticleswouldchangetheirrelativepositions.Ontheotherhand,certainsolidsmaybemadetofloww
7、henasufficientlylargeforceisapplied;theseareknownasplasticsolids.固体和流体之间的区别通常是很明显的,但是也有些物质难于归类。比如说有些流体并不易流动,如重油和树脂有时候会表现得像固体一样,像这样的一块物质如果放在地面上,虽然它的流动发生的非常缓慢,要经过很长的一段时间也许要好几天,但是在重力的作用下它仍然会在地面上蔓延开来,也就是说,它的组成质点会改变它们之间的相对位臵。另一方面,某些固体当足够大的力作用时也会“流动”,这就是我们所知的“塑性固体”。Evenso,theessentialdifferencebetweensoli
8、dsandfluidsremains.Anyfluid,nomatterhowthickorviscousitis,beginstoflow,evenifimperceptibly,undertheactionoftheslightestnetshearforce.Moreover,afluidcontinuestoflowaslongassuchaforceisapplied.Asolid,however,nomatterhowplasticitis,doesnotflowunlessthenetshearforceonitexceedsacertainvalue.Forforcesless
9、thanthisvaluethelayersofthesolidmoveoveroneanotheronlybyacertainamount.Themorethelayersaredisplacedfromtheiroriginalrelativepositions,however,thegreateraretheforcesresistingthedisplacement.Thus,ifasteadyforceisapplied,astatewillbereachedinwhichtheforceresistingthemovementofonelayeroveranotherbalance
10、theforceappliedandsonofurthermovementofthiskindcanoccur.Iftheappliedforceisthenremoved,theresistingforcedwilltendtorestorethesolidbodytoitsoriginalshape.即便如此,固体和流体之间依然有本质的差异。任何流体,无论多“稠”或者粘性多大,在最微小的剪切力作用下都会流动,即便这种流动是极其细微的。而且,只要这种力持续作用,流体就会连续流动。然而对于固体,不管它的可塑性有多强,只有当作用其上的净剪切力超过一定数值后才会流动,而小于该值的力所引起的固体层之
11、间的相对移动是有限的。层偏离原始位臵的程度越大,抵抗这种变形的力也就越大。因此,当一恒定力作用时,就会达到这样一个状态:即会产生一个抵抗这种层间相对运动的力以平衡所施加的外力,所以不会产生进一步的运动。如果将所施加的外力移除,抵抗力将会使固体恢复到它的原始形状Inafluid,however,theforcesopposingthemovementofonelayeroveranotherexistonlywhilethemovementistakingplace,andsostaticequilibriumbetweenappliedforceandresistancetoshearneve
12、roccurs.Deformationofthefluidtakesplacecontinuouslysolongasashearforceisapplied.Butifthisappliedforceisremovedtheshearingmovementsubsidesand,astherearethennoforcestendingtoreturntheparticlesoffluidtotheiroriginalrelativepositions,thefluidkeepsitsnewshape.然而,在流体中,只有当层间相对运动发生时才会存在这种阻止运动的力。所以不会存在这种外力和抵
13、抗力之间的静态平衡。只要有剪切力作用,流体便会产生连续变形。但是如果将外力移除,剪切运动便会减退,而且因为这时没有使流体质点回到它们初始位臵的力,所以流体将保持它的“新”形状。Fluidsmaybesub-dividedintoliquidsandgases.Afixedamountofaliquidhasadefinitevolumewhichvariesonlyslightlywithtemperatureandpressure.Ifthecapacityofthecontainingvesselisgreaterthanthisdefinitevolume,theliquidoccupi
14、esonlypartofthecontainer,anditformsaninterfaceseparatingiffromitsownvapour,theatmosphereoranyothergaspresent.流体可以划分为液体和气体。一定数量的液体其所占据的体积也是一定的,它随温度和压力的变化很小。如果容器的体积大于这个一定的体积,那么液体占据的只是容器的一部分,而且会形成一个分界面将液体与该液体的蒸汽、空气或其它存在的气体分开。Ontheotherhand,afixedamountofagas,byitselfinacontainer,willalwaysexpanduntilit
15、svolumeequalsthatofthecontainer.Onlythencanitbeinequilibrium.Intheanalysisofthebehaviouroffluidsthemostimportantdifferencebetweenliquidsandgasesisthat,whereasunderordinaryconditionsliquidsaresodifficulttocompressthattheymayformostpurposesberegardedasincompressible,gasesmaybecompressedmuchmorereadily
16、.Whereconditionsaresuchthatanamountofgasundergoesanegligiblechangeofvolume,itsbehaviourissimilartothatofaliquidanditmaythenberegardedasincompressible.If,however,thechangeinvolumeisnotnegligible,thecompressibilityofthegasmustbetakenintoaccountinexaminingitsbehaviour. 而另一方面,容器内一定数量的气体则通常都要膨胀到和容器相等的体积。
17、这样它才会达到平衡状态。在分析流体特性时,液体和气体之间最重要的差异在于:鉴于在通常的条件下液体是难以压缩的,因此常常将液体认为是不可压缩流体,而气体则容易压缩的多。当一定量的气体其体积变化可以被忽略的情况下,气体的表现和液体类似,因此也可以认为是不可压缩的。然而,如果体积的变化不可忽略,那么在分析其行为特征时就必须考虑气体的压缩性。Inconsideringtheactionofforcesonfluids,onecaneitheraccountforthebehaviorofeachandeverymoleculeoffluidinagivenfieldoffloworsimplifyth
18、eproblembyconsideringtheaverageeffectsofthemoleculesinagivenvolume.Inmostproblemsinfluiddynamicsthelatterapproachispossible,whichmeansthatthefluidcanberegardedasacontinuum-thatis,ahypotheticallycontinuoussubstance.在考虑作用于流体上的力时,可以用给定流动区域内的流体上每个分子的行为来解释,也可以只考虑给定体积内分子的平均效应而使问题得以简化。在流体动力学的许多问题中后一种方法是可行的
19、,这意味着将流体看作是连续介质即一种假想的连续介质。Thejustificationfortreatingafluidasacontinuumdependsonthephysicaldimensionsofthebodyimmersedinthefluidandonthenumberofmoleculesinagivenvolume.Letussaythatwearestudyingtheflowofairpastaspherewithadiameterof1cm.Acontinuumissaidtoprevailifthenumberofmoleculesinavolumemuchsmall
20、erthanthespheresissufficientlygreatsothattheaverageeffects(pressure,density,andsoon)withinthevolumeeitherareconstantorchangesmoothlywithtime.Thenumberofmoleculesinacubicmeterofairatroomtemperatureandsea-levelpressureisabout1025.Thusthenumberofmoleculesinavolumeof10-19m3(aboutthesizeofadustparticle,w
21、hichisverymuchsmallerthanthesphere)wouldbe106.Thisnumberofmoleculesissolargethattheaverageeffectswithinthemicrovolumeareindeedvirtuallyconstant.Ontheotherhand,ifthe1cmspherewereatanaltitudeof305km,therewouldbeonlyonechancein108offindingamoleculeinthemicrovolume,andtheconceptofanaverageconditionwould
22、bemeaningless.Inthiscase,thecontinuumassumptionwouldnotbevalidforfluidflowexceptintherarestconditions,suchasthoseencounteredinouterspace.是否可以将流体看作是连续介质取决于浸入流体的物体的尺寸和给定体积内的分子数目。比如我们现在研究空气流过一个直径为1厘米的球体的问题。如果在比球的体积小得多的体积内流体分子数目足够多以至于该体积的平均效应(压力、密度等等)为常数或者随时间缓慢变化,就认为该流体是连续介质。在室温、海平面压力下,每平方米空气中的分子数大约为102
23、5个,因此10-19m3体积中的分子数为106个(10-19m3大约是一个灰尘的体积,这要远远小于上面所说的球体)。如此多的分子数目使得在该微元体积内的平均效应实际上为常数。另一方面,如果1厘米的球体被臵于海拔305千米处,那么在该微元体积内发现一个分子的概率只有108分之一,所以平均状态的概念也就没有任何意义。在这种情况下,除了像在外层空间这种空气非常稀薄的情况之外,流体流动的连续性假设都是无效的。2.2Thermodynamicsystemsisolate使隔离,使独立;additional额外的,附加的,补充的;imaginary虚构的,想象德;envelope壳层、外壳、包裹物;cyl
24、inder圆筒、圆柱体、汽缸;boundary界线、分界、边界;location地点、位臵、场地;individual个别的,单独的,一个人的;solely独自的,单独的;steamgenerator蒸汽发生器(锅炉);steamcondenser冷凝器,凝汽器feed-waterpump给水泵;feed-waterheater给水加热器;2.3GeneralCharacteristicsofHeatTransfermomentum动量、运动量;friction摩擦力、阻力;collision猛烈相撞,抵触(意见)冲突;lattice格子,晶格;laminar成薄层的,薄层状的;diffusi
25、on扩散、散布;nonhomogeneous不均匀的;correlation相互关联、交互作用、关联式;analogy类比类推;heating加热器、air-conditioning空气调节装臵;refrigerationequipment冷冻设备制冷装臵;oscillation振动、摆动;state陈述、说明;opaque不透明的,不传热的;dominate支配、占优势;eddy旋转、漩涡;buffer缓冲器;dominant占优势的,支配的;electromagnetic电磁的;fundamental基本原理;2.2ThermodynamicSystemsIntheengineeringw
26、orld,objectsnormallyarenotisolatedfromoneanother.Inmostengineeringproblemsmanyobjectsenterintoagivenproblem.Someoftheseobjects,alloftheseobjects,orevenadditionalonesmayenterintoasecondproblem.Thenatureofaproblemanditssolutionaredependentonwhichobjectareunderconsideration.Thus,itisnecessarytospecifyw
27、hichobjectsareunderconsiderationinaparticularsituation.Inthermodynamicsthisisdoneeitherbyplacinganimaginaryenvelopearoundtheobjectsunderconsiderationorbyusinganactualenvelopeifsuchexists.Thetermsystemreferstoeverythinglyinginsidetheenvelope.Theenvelope,realorimaginary,isreferredtoastheboundariesofth
28、esystem.Itisessentialthattheboundariesofthesystembespecifiedverycarefully.Forexample,whenoneisdealingwithagasinacylinderwheretheboundariesarelocatedontheoutsideofthecylinder,thesystemincludesboththecylinderanditscontainedgas.Ontheotherhand,whentheboundariesareplacedattheinnerfaceofthecylinder,thesys
29、temconsistssolelyofthegasitself.在工程领域中,对象与对象之间通常并不是相互孤立的。在许多工程问题中某一给定的问题会包含多个对象,而这些对象中的一部分、全部甚至它们的附加的对象往往也会出现在其它的问题中。问题及其解决问题的关键就在于要确定所要研究的对象。因此,有必要指明在特定的场合下所要研究的是哪些对象。在热力学中可以通过给所要研究的对象设臵一个假想的将其包围的外壳或者如果实际存在则应用实际存在的外壳来达到这一目的。“系统”这个术语指的是此外壳内的一切物质。而该外壳,无论是实际存在的还是假想的,都可以认为是系统的边界。必须非常谨慎的确定系统的边界,这一点是非常重要
30、的。比如,当我们研究气缸内的气体时,如果将边界取在气缸的外表面上,那么该系统将同时包含气缸以及它内部的气体。然而如果将边界取在气缸的内表面上,那么该系统包含的则仅仅是气体本身。Whentheboundariesofasystemaresuchthatitcannotexchangematterwiththesurroundings,thesystemissaidtobeaclosedsystem(seeFig.2-1a).Thesystem,however,mayexchangeenergyintheformofheatorworkwiththesurroundings.Theboundari
31、esofaclosedsystemmayberigidormayexpandorcontract,butthemassofaclosedsystemcannotchange.Hence,thetermcontrolmasssometimesisusedforthistypeofsystem.Whentheenergycrossingtheboundariesofaclosedsystemiszeroorsubstantiallyso,thesystemmaybetreatedasanisolatedsystem(Fig.2-1b). 如果系统的边界与环境没有质量的交换,则该系统被称为闭口系统(
32、如图2-1a所示)。然而,系统与环境却可以以热和功的形式交换能量。闭口系统的边界可以是刚性的,也可以是可膨胀的或可收缩的。但闭口系统内的质量却不会改变。因此,有时用“控制质量”这个词来描述这种类型的系统。当穿过闭口系统边界的能量为零或足够小时,该系统可以当作孤立系统来对待(如图2-1b所示)。Inmostengineeringproblems,matter,generallyafluid,crossestheboundariesofasysteminoneormoreplaces.Suchasystemisknownasanopensystem(seeFig.2-1c).Theboundari
33、esofanopensystemaresoplacedthattheirlocationdoesnotchangewithtime.Thus,theboundariesencloseafixedvolume,commonlyknownasthecontrolvolume.在许多工程问题中,物质通常为流体会从一个或多个方位穿过系统,这样的系统即为开口系统(如图2-1c所示)。开口系统的边界的选择应该是其位臵不会随时间而变。因此,边界封闭了一固定的体积,所以通常也称之为控制体积。Sometimesasystemmaybeaclosedsystematonemomentandanopenonethe
34、next.Forexample,considerthecylinderofaninternalcombustionenginewiththeboundariesattheinnerwalls.Withthevalvesclosed,thesystemisaclosedone.However,witheitherorboththevalvesopen,thesystembecomesanopensystem.有时候某个系统会在某个时刻为闭口系统而在另一时刻为开口系统。比如对边界取在气缸内壁的内燃机汽缸来说,当阀门关闭时,该系统为闭口系统,然而随着一个或两个阀门的开启,该系统则变为开口系统。Fre
35、quentlythetotalsystemtobeconsideredmaybelargeandcomplicated.Thesystemmaybebrokendownintocomponentpartsandananalysisofthecomponentpartmade.Thentheperformanceoftheentiresystemcanbedeterminedbythesummationoftheperformanceoftheindividualcomponentsystem.Forexample,considertheliquid-vaporpartofasteampower
36、plantasanentiresystem.Thissystem,whichisclosed,containsthesteamgenerator,thesteamturbine,thesteamcondenser,thefeed-waterpumps,andthefeed-waterheaters.Anyoralloftheseunitsmaybeconsideredseparatelybythrowingaboundaryaroundthem.Sinceafluidentersandleaveseachofthesesmallersystems,eachoneisanopensysteman
37、dmustbeanalyzedassuch.通常我们所研究的完整系统是庞大而复杂的。这样的系统则常被分解为各个组成部分,然后对各个组分进行分别地分析。整个系统的性能则可以通过对各分系统的性能进行加总求和来确定。比如,要研究热电厂的汽-水系统这一完整系统。该闭口系统包括蒸汽发生器(锅炉)、汽轮机、凝汽器和给水加热器。该系统内的任何一个或所有单元都可以通过设臵相应的边界来进行单独的分析。因为流体在这些小的系统内都有流进和流出,所以这些小的系统都是作为开口系统来分析的。2.3GeneralCharacteristicsofHeatTransfer传热的基本特征Heatorthermalenergyi
38、stransferredfromoneregiontoanotherbythreemodes;conduction,convectionandradiation.Eachisimportantinthedesignorapplicationofheating,air-conditioningorrefrigerationequipment.Heattransferisamongthetransportphenomenathatincludemasstransfer,momentumtransferorfluidfrictionandelectricalconduction.Transportp
39、henomenahavesimilarrateequationsandfluxisproportionaltoapotentialdifference.Inheattransferbyconductionandconvection,thepotentialdifferenceisthetemperaturedifference.Heat,massandmomentumtransfer,becauseoftheirsimilaritiesandinterrelationshipinmanycommonphysicalprocesses,receiveunifiedtreatmentinsomet
40、extbooks.热能通过三种模式从一个区域传递到另一个区域,即导热、对流和辐射。在加热器、空调和冰箱的设计和应用中这三者都是非常重要的。传热是众多传输现象中的一例,这些传输现象包括传质、动量传输或流体摩擦传输以及导电等。传输现象都有相同的速度方程,并且流量都正比于某个势差。在对流和导热传热中,该势差为温度差。热量、质量和动量的传输,因为它们在许多共同的物理过程中的相似性和相互联系,在一些教科书中都被统一处理。Thermalconductionisthemechanismofheattransferwherebyenergyistransportedbetweenpartsofacontinu
41、umfromthetransferofkineticenergybetweenparticlesorgroupsofparticlesattheatomiclevel.Ingases,conductionisaresultofelasticcollisionofmolecules;inliquidsandelectricallynonconductingsolids,itisbelievedtobecausedbylongitudinaloscillationsofthelatticestructure.Thermalconductioninmetalsoccurslikeelectrical
42、conduction,throughmotionsoffreeelectrons.ThesecondLawofThermodynamicsstatesthatthermaltransferoccursinthedirectionofdecreasingtemperature.Insolidopaquebodies,thesignificantheattransfermechanismisthermalconduction,sincethereisnonetmaterialflowintheprocess.Withflowingfluids,thermalconductiondominatesi
43、ntheregionveryclosetoasolidboundarywheretheflowislaminarandparalleltothesurface,andthereisnoeddymotion.导热是由于在原子级别上质点或质点组之间进行动能传输而引起连续介质之间能量传输的一种传热机理。对于气体而言,导热是分子弹性碰撞的结果。对于液体和非导电固体而言,则被证实是由于晶格的纵向振动引起的。金属的导热和导电类似,是通过电子的自由运动产生的。热力学第二定律表明导热沿温度降低的方向进行。对于不透明的固体物质,导热是主要的传热形式,因为在此过程中没有发生物质的净流动。随着流体的流动,在接近固体边界的区域导热占主导地位,因为此处流体呈层流状态且与固体表面相平行,并且没有漩涡运动。Thermalconvectionmayinvolveenergytransfer