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1、Unit 2 Culture and Communication Pre-reading Questions:1.What does the term culture usually mean to you?2.What do you know about the functions of culture?第1页 Representative Definitions to Culture Culture is notoriously difficult to define.So far there are at least more than 150 definitions to it.Cul
2、ture is that complex whole which includes knowledge,belief,art,law,morals,custom,and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.-E.B.Tylor,1871 Culture may be defined as what a society does and thinks.-E.Sapir,1921 What really binds men together is their culture-the ide
3、as and the standards they have in common.-R.Benedict,1935 Culture is mans medium;there is not one aspect of human life that is not touched and altered by culture.This means personality,how people express themselves(including shows of emotion),the way they think,how they move,how problems are solved,
4、how their cities are planned and laid out,how transportation systems function and are organized,as well as how economic and government systems are put together and function.-Edward T.Hall,1959 第2页 Continued By culture,anthropology means the total life way of a people,the social legacy the individual
5、 acquires from his group.Or culture can be regarded as that part of the environment that is the creation of man.-Clyde Kluckhohn,1965 A culture is a collection of beliefs,habits,living patterns,and behaviors which are held more or less in common by people who occupy particular geographic areas.-D.Br
6、own,1978 .culture refers to the total way of life of particular groups of people.It includes everything that a group of people thinks,says,does,and makes.-R.Kohl,1979 The culture of every society is unique,containing combinations of norms and values that are found nowhere else.-I.Robertson,1981第3页 C
7、ontinued I treat culture as the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another.The mind stands for the head,heart,and hands-that is,for thinking,feeling,and acting,with consequences for beliefs,attitudes,and skills.-G.Hofstede,Cultur
8、e is a fuzzy set of attitudes,beliefs,behavioral conventions,and basic assumptions and values that are shared by a group of people,and that influence each members behavior and each members interpretations of the meaning of other peoples behavior.-Apte,第4页 汉语中“文化”一词起源 中国有华夷之辨，但无文化之概念。在中国典籍中，“文”既指文字、文
9、章、文采，又指礼乐制度、法律条文等；“化”乃“教化”之意。汉代刘向在说苑中说：“凡武之兴，为不服也，文化不改，然后加诛”。其中“文化”一词与“武功”相对，含教化之意。“文化”两字组合，最早见于战国末年出现周易贲卦：“观乎天文，以察时变；观乎人文，以化整天下”。在西方，“文化”一词源于拉丁文cultura,在英文中为culture,原意是指农耕以及对植物培育，从15世纪以来，逐步引申为对人品德和能力培养。在近代，日本人将英文culture翻译成文化，今后我国便借用日人之译法。第5页 文化特征1.文化是由人类进化过程中衍生出来或创造出来。e.g.水不是文化，人修水道才是文化（如京杭大运河）2.文化
10、是人们后天习得。e.g.“近朱者赤，近墨者黑”，“跟着好人学好人，跟着巫婆学跳神”3.文化是一个体系。e.g.美国向他国输出美式文化，势必会对该国文化方方面面带来影响。4.文化在一个群体中含有共享性。e.g.大中华文化圈“耻文化”，同性恋文化5.世界文化是丰富多彩。e.g.犹太人吃鱼类不吃猪肉，祖鲁人吃蝗虫不吃鱼类；阿拉伯妇女需全身遮盖，非洲许多地域妇女可裸胸露臀6.文化是发展改变。e.g.中国文化随地可见外国舶来品，从牛仔服到KFC，从迪斯科到卡拉OK7.文化含有民族性和特定阶级性。8.文化常有本民族文化优越感倾向。cultural superority ethnocentric9.文化是建
11、立在象征符号之上，是能够传递。第6页 Functions of Culture1.culture serves the identity meaning function;2.culture serves the group inclusion function;3.culture serves the intergroup boundary regulation function;4.culture serves the ecological adaptation function;5.culture serves the cultural communication function.第7
12、页examples to illustrate cultures chracteristics example 1 Concept of GirlChinese perspective:Girl means sb.who is young and single,while woman means sb.who is married and who is probably not young.In fact,most single Chinese females,such as university students,would be insulted to be called women.Ho
13、wever,male students of the same age would not want to be called boys.North American perspective:In formal,public settings,its customary to call any female who is past puberty a woman,even though she may not be legally old enough to vote or marry.This terminology became widespread during the womens l
14、iberation.The term girl is sometimes interpreted to be demeaning or disrespectful.Interestingly,the term girl is often used among young or older women to refer to themselves when speaking with female friends or a spouse or lover,such as a girls night out,Go girl!,girl power.第8页 the gift of a book Ch
15、inese perspective:It is a common practice in China that when sb.publishes a book,he would send it to people he cares about.If a friend asks the author for a free copy of the book,the author is supposed to feel grateful about this.In the case where sb.wants to buy a copy,most authors would find it em
16、barrassing to take the money.North American perspective:Books in North America tend to be expensive,so people normally dont expect the author to give away free copies to anyone who expresses interest.Furthermore,writing a book takes a lot of work,and peopel fully understand that the author is entitl
17、ed to be paid for his work.第9页 sexual harassment has many faces Chinese perspective:Teacher-student love relationship is not something very unusual in China.People may talk about it for a while and then get used to the fact.No one would interfere with the love relationship.North American perspective
18、:In North America,any romantic liaison between a person in a position of power and a person in a subordinate position could be a form of sexual harassment.第10页 Maslows Hierarchy of Needs-1943第11页 Fill-in TaskCulture can be roughly classified according to different standards.formal culture vs deep cu
19、lture 形式文化-深层文化explicit culture vs implicit culture 显性文化-隐性文化overt culture vs covert culture 公开文化-隐蔽文化第12页 Reading II In reality,communication is the essential human connection.Whether in pictures,or music,whether verbal or nonverbal,informative or persuasive,frightening or amusing,clear or unclear,
20、purposeful or accidental,communication is our link to the rest of the humanity.Characteristics of Communication communication is symbolic communication is interpretive communication is transactional communication is contextual communication is a process communication involves shared meanings第13页 Ele
21、ments of Communication context:physical setting,historical,psychological,culture participants:relationship,gender,culture messages:meanings,symbol,encoding,decoding channels:sound,sight,smell,taste,touch,etc.noise:external noise,internal noise,semantic noise feedback:verbal or nonverbal response giv
22、en by receivers who attempt to decode the meaning of messages第14页 semantic noise古时一县官与一知府之间对话：“贵县风土怎样？”“并没有大风，更少尘土。”“百姓怎样？”“白杏只有两棵，红杏不少。”“我问是黎庶。”“梨树很多，结果实很小。”“我不是问什么梨树，我是问你小民。”“卑职小名叫狗儿。”第15页 continued 1945年，日本首相铃木宣告他政府愿意“默殺”（mokusatsu)波茨坦公告(The Potsdam Proclamation)。该词现有“藐视或不理会”之意，又有“高明老练地不作出反应”之意。译
23、员选前意，此误译使美国断定日本不愿投降，于是在广岛、长崎投下了原子弹。第16页 Discovering Problems It is easy to see what is wrong with each of the English commercial signs.Some of them are grammatically incorrect;some others,though grammatically correct,use English in a strange way,probably influenced by the native languages of the cou
24、ntries.More cases of misuse of English in our life:地面光滑，小心摔倒-The Ground is smooth,carefully Throws Down.(in a hotel)售票房-Sells the Box Office(at a cinema)熟食计价处-The Familiar Food Makes Sure the Price(in a supermarket)话梅糖-Saying Plum Candies（on the package of the candies)第17页 Matching Task1.j-I suppose
25、 the film is a tear-jerker2.f-we dont have anything to treat complete loss of voice3.a-I dont want to talk about it.4.g-perhaps the dog has eaten the raost beef5.i-Im a bit dubious about drinking that cocktail6.h-Im not goin gto it7.b-I didnt buy her a rose8.c-I think The Omen is scary9.d-whiskey pl
26、ease/sth.other than whiskey,please10.e-No,he isnt,for the English are generally not good cooks第18页 Translation 文化有时候被称为我们心智程序，也即我们“头脑软件”。不过，我们能够深入引申这个用电脑所做类比，把文化看作是支持软件运行操作环境。文化就像电脑使用DOS或者Unix或者“视窗”(Windows)等操作系统一样，使我们能在各种各样实际应用中处理信息。用“视窗”这个比喻来描述文化似乎也很有吸引力。文化就是我们心灵视窗，透过它我们能够审阅生活方方面面。一个社会中不一样个体视窗是大不一
27、样，但都有着一些主要共同特征。文化就好像是鱼畅游于其中水普通，人们想当然地把文化看成是客观存在事实，从而极少去研究它。文化存在于我们所呼吸空气之中，文化对我们了解自我是必不可少，就正如生命离不开空气一样。文化是特定群体第19页 CONTINUED共有财产，而不单是个体特征。社会按照文化设定程序来运作，这种程序来自于相同生活体验以及对这种生活体验之涵义相同性阐释。假如文化是一个心智程序，那么它也是现实心灵地图。从我们很小时候开始，文化就告诉我们应该看重什么、偏好什么、躲避什么以及做些什么。文化还告诉我们事物应该是什么样。文化为我们提供超越个体经验理想典范，帮助我们决定应该优先考虑什么。文化为我们
28、建立起行为准则，并解释为何符合这些准则行为正当、正当。第20页 Case Study case 5:In China,it is often not polite to accept a first offer and Heping was being modest,polite and well-behaved and had every intention of accpeting the beer at the second or third offer.But he did not know the North American rules which firmly say that
29、you do not push alcoholic beverages on anyone.A person may not drink for religious reasons,he may be a reformed alcoholic,or he may be allergic.Whatever the reason,you do not insist on offering alcohol.So the Americans didnt make a second offer of beer to Heping,who probably thought North Americans
30、not hospitable.However,there are always individual differences between people from even the same culture.Probably the young Chinese nurse had known sth.about the American culture and was just trying to behave like an American when she was in an American family.第21页 Case 6 When a speaker says sth.to
31、a hearer,there are at least three kinds of meanings involved:utterance meaning,the speakers meaning andthe hearers meaning.In the dialogue,when Litz asked how long her mother-in-law was going to stay,she meant that if she knew how long she was going to stay in Finland,she would be able to make prope
32、r arrangements for her,such as taking her out to do some sightseeing.However,her mother-in-law took Litzs question to mean that Litz does not want me to stay for long.From the Chinese point of view,it seems inappropriate for Litz to ask such a question just two days after her mother-in-laws arrival.
33、If she has to ask the question,it would be better to ask some time later and she would not let her mother-in-law hear it.第22页 Case 7 Keiko insists on giving valuable gifts to her college friends,because in countries like Japan,exchanging gifts is a strongly rooted social tradition.Should you receive
34、 a gift,and dont have one to offer in return,you will probably create a crisis.If not as serious as a crisis,one who doesnt offer a gift in return may be considered rude or impolite.Therefore,in Japan,gifts are a symbolic way to show appreciation,respect,gratitude and further relationship.Keiko obvi
35、ously has taken those used items from Mary,Ed and Marion as gifts,for she probably doesnt know that Americans frequently donate their used household items to church or to the community.Mary,Ed and Mariton would never consider those used household items given to Keiko as gifts.No wonder they felt ver
36、y uncomfortable when they received valuable gifts in return.第23页 Case 8 When the Chinese girl Amy fell in love with an American boy at that time,it seems that she preferred to celebrate Christmas in the American way,for she wanted very much to appear the same as other American girls.She did not like
37、 to see her boyfriend disappointed at the shabby Chinese Christmas.Thats why she cried when she found out her parents had invited the ministers family over for the Christmas Eve dinner.She thought the menu for the Christmas meal created by her mother a strange one because there were no roast turkey
38、and sweet potatoes but only Chinese food.How could she notice then the foods chosen by her mother were all her favorites?From this case,we can find a lot of differences between the Chinese and Western cultures in what is appropriate food for a banquet,what are good table manners,and how one should behave to be hospitable.However,one should never feel shame just because ones culture is different from others.As Amys mother told her,you must be proud to be different,and your only shame is to have shame.第24页