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1、GLOBALPOSITIONING SYSTEMS,INERTIAL NAVIGATION,AND INTEGRATIONSECOND EDITIONMOHINDER S.GREWALLAWRENCE R.WEILLANGUS P.ANDREWSWILEY-INTERSCIENCEA John Wiley&Sons,Inc.,PublicationGLOBALPOSITIONING SYSTEMS,INERTIAL NAVIGATION,AND INTEGRATIONGLOBALPOSITIONING SYSTEMS,INERTIAL NAVIGATION,AND INTEGRATIONSEC
2、OND EDITIONMOHINDER S.GREWALLAWRENCE R.WEILLANGUS P.ANDREWSWILEY-INTERSCIENCEA John Wiley&Sons,Inc.,PublicationCopyright 2007 by John Wiley&Sons,Inc.All rights reserved.Published by John Wiley&Sons,Inc.,Hoboken,New Jersey.Published simultaneously in Canada.No part of this publication may be reproduc
3、ed,stored in a retrieval system,or transmitted in anyform or by any means,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recording,scanning,or otherwise,except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act,withouteither the prior written permission of the Publisher,or authorizati
4、on through payment of theappropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center,Inc.,222 Rosewood Drive,Danvers,MA 01923,(978)750-8400,fax(978)750-4470,or on the web at .Requeststo the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department,John Wiley&Sons,Inc.,111 River Stree
5、t,Hoboken,NJ 07030,(201)748-6011,fax(201)748-6008,or online athttp:/ of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty:While the publisher and author have used their bestefforts in preparing this book,they make no representations or warranties with respect to theaccuracy or completeness of the contents of this bo
6、ok and specifically disclaim any impliedwarranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose.No warranty may be created orextended by sales representatives or written sales materials.The advice and strategies containedherein may not be suitable for your situation.You should consult with
7、 a professional whereappropriate.Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any othercommercial damages,including but not limited to special,incidental,consequential,or otherdamages.For general information on our other products and services or for technical support,pl
8、ease contactour Customer Care Department within the United States at(800)762-2974,outside the UnitedStates at(317)572-3993 or fax(317)572-4002.Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats.Some content that appears in printmay not be available in electronic formats.For more infor
9、mation about Wiley products,visit ourweb site at .Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available.ISBN-13 978-0-470-04190-1ISBN-10 0-470-04190-0Printed in the United States of America.10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1M.S.G.dedicates this book to the memory of his parents,Livlin Kaur andSardar Sah
10、ib Sardar Karam Singh Grewal.L.R.W.dedicates his work to his late mother,Christine R.Weill,for her loveand encouragement in pursuing his chosen profession.A.P.A.dedicates his work to his wife Jeri,without whom it could not havebeen done.CONTENTSPreface to the Second EditionxviiAcknowledgmentsxixAcro
11、nymsxxi1Introduction11.1GNSS/INS Integration Overview,11.2GNSS Overview,21.2.1GPS,21.2.2GLONASS,41.2.3Galileo,51.3Differential and Augmented GPS,71.3.1Differential GPS(DGPS),71.3.2Local-Area Differential GPS,71.3.3Wide-Area Differential GPS,81.3.4Wide-Area Augmentation System,81.4Space-Based Augment
12、ation Systems(SBASs),81.4.1Historical Background,81.4.2Wide-Area Augmentation System(WAAS),91.4.3European Geostationary Navigation Overlay System(EGNOS),10viiviiiCONTENTS1.4.4Japans MTSAT Satellite-Based Augmentation System(MSAS),111.4.5Canadian Wide-Area Augmentation System(CWAAS),121.4.6Chinas Sat
13、ellite Navigation Augmentation System(SNAS),121.4.7Indian GPS and GEO Augmented Navigation System(GAGAN),121.4.8Ground-Based Augmentation Systems(GBASs),121.4.9Inmarsat Civil Navigation,141.4.10 Satellite Overlay,151.4.11 Future Satellite Systems,151.5Applications,151.5.1Aviation,161.5.2Spacecraft G
14、uidance,161.5.3Maritime,161.5.4Land,161.5.5Geographic Information Systems(GISs),Mapping,andAgriculture,16Problems,172Fundamentals of Satellite and Inertial Navigation182.1Navigation Systems Considered,182.1.1Systems Other than GNSS,182.1.2Comparison Criteria,192.2Fundamentals of Inertial Navigation,
15、192.2.1Basic Concepts,192.2.2Inertial Navigation Systems,212.2.3Sensor Signal Processing,282.2.4Standalone INS Performance,322.3Satellite Navigation,342.3.1Satellite Orbits,342.3.2Navigation Solution(Two-Dimensional Example),342.3.3Satellite Selection and Dilution of Precision,392.3.4Example Calcula
16、tion of DOPs,422.4Time and GPS,442.4.1Coordinated Universal Time Generation,442.4.2GPS System Time,442.4.3Receiver Computation of UTC,452.5Example GPS Calculations with no Errors,462.5.1User Position Calculations,462.5.2User Velocity Calculations,48Problems,49CONTENTSix3Signal Characteristics and In
17、formation Extraction533.1Mathematical Signal Waveform Models,533.2GPS Signal Components,Purposes,and Properties,543.2.150-bps(bits per second)Data Stream,543.2.2GPS Satellite Position Calculations,593.2.3C/A-Code and Its Properties,653.2.4P-Code and Its Properties,703.2.5L1and L2Carriers,713.3Signal
18、 Power Levels,723.3.1Transmitted Power Levels,723.3.2Free-Space Loss Factor,723.3.3Atmospheric Loss Factor,723.3.4Antenna Gain and Minimum Received Signal Power,733.4Signal Acquisition and Tracking,733.4.1Determination of Visible Satellites,733.4.2Signal Doppler Estimation,743.4.3Search for Signal i
19、n Frequency and C/A-Code Phase,743.4.4Signal Detection and Confirmation,783.4.5Code Tracking Loop,813.4.6Carrier Phase Tracking Loops,843.4.7Bit Synchronization,873.4.8Data Bit Demodulation,883.5Extraction of Information for Navigation Solution,883.5.1Signal Transmission Time Information,893.5.2Ephe
20、meris Data,893.5.3Pseudorange Measurements Using C/A-Code,893.5.4Pseudorange Measurements Using Carrier Phase,913.5.5Carrier Doppler Measurement,923.5.6Integrated Doppler Measurements,933.6Theoretical Considerations in Pseudorange and Frequency Estimation,953.6.1Theoretical versus Realizable Code-Ba
21、sed PseudorangingPerformance,953.6.2Theoretical Error Bounds for Carrier-Based Pseudoranging,973.6.3Theoretical Error Bounds for Frequency Measurement,983.7Modernization of GPS,983.7.1Deficiencies of the Current System,993.7.2Elements of the Modernized GPS,1003.7.3Families of GPS Satellites,1033.7.4
22、Accuracy Improvements from Modernization,1043.7.5Structure of the Modernized Signals,104Problems,107xCONTENTS4Receiver and Antenna Design1114.1Receiver Architecture,1114.1.1Radiofrequency Stages(Front End),1114.1.2Frequency Downconversion and IF Amplification,1124.1.3Digitization,1144.1.4Baseband Si
23、gnal Processing,1144.2Receiver Design Choices,1164.2.1Number of Channels and Sequencing Rate,1164.2.2L2Capability,1184.2.3Code Selections:C/A,P,or Codeless,1194.2.4Access to SA Signals,1204.2.5Differential Capability,1214.2.6Pseudosatellite Compatibility,1234.2.7Immunity to Pseudolite Signals,1284.2
24、.8Aiding Inputs,1284.3High-Sensitivity-Assisted GPS Systems(Indoor Positioning),1294.3.1How Assisting Data Improves Receiver Performance,1304.3.2Factors Affecting High-Sensitivity Receivers,1344.4Antenna Design,1354.4.1Physical Form Factors,1364.4.2Circular Polarization of GPS Signals,1374.4.3Princi
25、ples of Phased-Array Antennas,1394.4.4The Antenna Phase Center,141Problems,1425Global Navigation Satellite System Data Errors1445.1Selective Availability Errors,1445.1.1Time-Domain Description,1475.1.2Collection of SA Data,1505.2Ionospheric Propagation Errors,1515.2.1Ionospheric Delay Model,1535.2.2
26、GNSS Ionospheric Algorithms,1555.3Tropospheric Propagation Errors,1635.4The Multipath Problem,1645.5How Multipath Causes Ranging Errors,1655.6Methods of Multipath Mitigation,1675.6.1Spatial Processing Techniques,1675.6.2Time-Domain Processing,1695.6.3MMT Technology,1725.6.4Performance of Time-Domain
27、 Methods,1825.7Theoretical Limits for Multipath Mitigation,1845.7.1Estimation-Theoretic Methods,1845.7.2MMSE Estimator,1845.7.3Multipath Modeling Errors,184CONTENTSxi5.8Ephemeris Data Errors,1855.9Onboard Clock Errors,1855.10 Receiver Clock Errors,1865.11 Error Budgets,1885.12 Differential GNSS,1885
28、.12.1 PN Code Differential Measurements,1905.12.2 Carrier Phase Differential Measurements,1915.12.3 Positioning Using Double-Difference Measurements,1935.13 GPS Precise Point Positioning Services and Products,194Problems,1966Differential GNSS1996.1Introduction,1996.2Descriptions of LADGPS,WADGPS,and
29、 SBAS,1996.2.1Local-Area Differential GPS(LADGPS),1996.2.2Wide-Area Differential GPS(WADGPS),2006.2.3Space-Based Augmentation Systems(SBAS),2006.3Ground-Based Augmentation System(GBAS),2056.3.1Local-Area Augmentation System(LAAS),2056.3.2Joint Precision Approach Landing System(JPALS),2056.3.3LORAN-C
30、,2066.4GEO Uplink Subsystem(GUS),2066.4.1Description of the GUS Algorithm,2076.4.2In-Orbit Tests,2086.4.3Ionospheric Delay Estimation,2096.4.4CodeCarrier Frequency Coherence,2116.4.5Carrier Frequency Stability,2126.5GUS Clock Steering Algorithms,2136.5.1Primary GUS Clock Steering Algorithm,2146.5.2B
31、ackup GUS Clock Steering Algorithm,2156.5.3Clock Steering Test Results Description,2166.6GEO with L1/L5Signals,2176.6.1GEO Uplink Subsystem Type 1(GUST)Control LoopOverview,2206.7New GUS Clock Steering Algorithm,2236.7.1Receiver Clock Error Determination,2266.7.2Clock Steering Control Law,2276.8GEO
32、Orbit Determination,2286.8.1Orbit Determination Covariance Analysis,230Problems,2357GNSS and GEO Signal Integrity2367.1Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring(RAIM),2367.1.1Range Comparison Method of Lee 121,237xiiCONTENTS7.1.2Least-Squares Method 151,2377.1.3Parity Method 182,183,2387.2SBAS and GB
33、AS Integrity Design,2387.2.1SBAS Error Sources and Integrity Threats,2407.2.2GNSS-Associated Errors,2407.2.3GEO-Associated Errors,2437.2.4Receiver and Measurement Processing Errors,2437.2.5Estimation Errors,2457.2.6Integrity-Bound Associated Errors,2457.2.7GEO Uplink Errors,2467.2.8Mitigation of Int
34、egrity Threats,2477.3SBAS example,2537.4Conclusions,2547.5GPS Integrity Channel(GIC),2548Kalman Filtering2558.1Introduction,2558.1.1What Is a Kalman Filter?,2558.1.2How It Works,2568.2Kalman Gain,2578.2.1Approaches to Deriving the Kalman Gain,2588.2.2Gaussian Probability Density Functions,2598.2.3Pr
35、operties of Likelihood Functions,2608.2.4Solving for Combined Information Matrix,2628.2.5Solving for Combined Argmax,2638.2.6Noisy Measurement Likelihoods,2638.2.7Gaussian Maximum-Likelihood Estimate,2658.2.8Kalman Gain Matrix for Maximum-Likelihood Estimation,2678.2.9Estimate Correction Using Kalma
36、n Gain,2678.2.10 Covariance Correction for Measurements,2678.3Prediction,2688.3.1Stochastic Systems in Continuous Time,2688.3.2Stochastic Systems in Discrete Time,2738.3.3State Space Models for Discrete Time,2748.3.4Dynamic Disturbance Noise Distribution Matrices,2758.3.5Predictor Equations,2768.4Su
37、mmary of Kalman Filter Equations,2778.4.1Essential Equations,2778.4.2Common Terminology,2778.4.3Data Flow Diagrams,2788.5Accommodating Time-Correlated Noise,2798.5.1Correlated Noise Models,2798.5.2Empirical Sensor Noise Modeling,2828.5.3State Vector Augmentation,283CONTENTSxiii8.6Nonlinear and Adapt
38、ive Implementations,2858.6.1Nonlinear Dynamics,2858.6.2Nonlinear Sensors,2868.6.3Linearized Kalman Filter,2868.6.4Extended Kalman Filtering,2878.6.5Adaptive Kalman Filtering,2888.7KalmanBucy Filter,2908.7.1Implementation Equations,2908.7.2KalmanBucy Filter Parameters,2918.8GPS Receiver Examples,2918
39、.8.1Satellite Models,2918.8.2Measurement Model,2928.8.3Coordinates,2938.8.4Measurement Sensitivity Matrix,2938.8.5Implementation Results,2948.9Other Kalman Filter Improvements,3028.9.1SchmidtKalman Suboptimal Filtering,3028.9.2Serial Measurement Processing,3058.9.3Improving Numerical Stability,3058.
40、9.4Kalman Filter Monitoring,309Problems,3139Inertial Navigation Systems3169.1Inertial Sensor Technologies,3169.1.1Early Gyroscopes,3169.1.2Early Accelerometers,3209.1.3Feedback Control Technology,3239.1.4Rotating Coriolis Multisensors,3269.1.5Laser Technology and Lightwave Gyroscopes,3289.1.6Vibrato
41、ry Coriolis Gyroscopes(VCGs),3299.1.7MEMS Technology,3319.2Inertial Systems Technologies,3329.2.1Early Requirements,3329.2.2Computer Technology,3329.2.3Early Strapdown Systems,3339.2.4INS and GNSS,3349.3Inertial Sensor Models,3359.3.1Zero-Mean Random Errors,3369.3.2Systematic Errors,3379.3.3Other Ca
42、libration Parameters,3409.3.4Calibration Parameter Instability,3419.3.5Auxilliary Sensors,3429.4System Implementation Models,3439.4.1One-Dimensional Example,3439.4.2Initialization and Alignment,344xivCONTENTS9.4.3Earth Models,3479.4.4Gimbal Attitude Implementations,3559.4.5Strapdown Attitude Impleme
43、ntations,3579.4.6Navigation Computer and Software Requirements,3639.5System-Level Error Models,3649.5.1Error Sources,3659.5.2Navigation Error Propagation,3679.5.3Sensor Error Propagation,3739.5.4Examples,377Problems,38110 GNSS/INS Integration38210.1 Background,38210.1.1 Sensor Integration,38210.1.2
44、The Influence of Host Vehicle Trajectories on Performance,38310.1.3 Loosely and Tightly Coupled Integration,38410.1.4 Antenna/ISA Offset Correction,38510.2 Effects of Host Vehicle Dynamics,38710.2.1 Vehicle Tracking Filters,38810.2.2 Specialized Host Vehicle Tracking Filters,39010.2.3 Vehicle Tracki
45、ng Filter Comparison,40210.3 Loosely Coupled Integration,40410.3.1 Overall Approach,40410.3.2 GNSS Error Models,40410.3.3 Receiver Position Error Model,40710.3.4 INS Error Models,40810.4 Tightly Coupled Integration,41310.4.1 Using GNSS for INS Vertical Channel Stabilization,41310.4.2 Using INS Accel
46、erations to Aid GNSS Signal Tracking,41410.4.3 Using GNSS Pseudoranges,41410.4.4 Real-Time INS Recalibration,41510.5 Future Developments,423Appendix A Software425A.1 Software Sources,425A.2 Software for Chapter 3,426A.2.1 Satellite Position Determination Using Ephemeris Data,426A.2.2 Satellite Posit
47、ion Determination Using Almanac Data for AllSatellites,426A.3 Software for Chapter 5,426A.3.1 Ionospheric Delays,426A.4 Software for Chapter 8,426CONTENTSxvA.5 Software for Chapter 9,427A.6 Software for Chapter 10,428Appendix B Vectors and Matrices429B.1 Scalars,429B.2 Vectors,430B.2.1Vector Notatio
48、n,430B.2.2Unit Vectors,430B.2.3Subvectors,430B.2.4Transpose of a Vector,431B.2.5Vector Inner Product,431B.2.6Orthogonal Vectors,431B.2.7Magnitude of a Vector,431B.2.8Unit Vectors and Orthonormal Vectors,431B.2.9Vector Norms,432B.2.10 Vector Cross-Product,432B.2.11 Right-Handed Coordinate Systems,433
49、B.2.12 Vector Outer Product,433B.3 Matrices,433B.3.1Matrix Notation,433B.3.2Special Matrix Forms,434B.4 Matrix Operations,436B.4.1Matrix Transposition,436B.4.2Subscripted Matrix Expressions,437B.4.3Multiplication of Matrices by Scalars,437B.4.4Addition and Multiplication of Matrices,437B.4.5Powers o
50、f Square Matrices,438B.4.6Matrix Inversion,438B.4.7Generalized Matrix Inversion,438B.4.8Orthogonal Matrices,439B.5 Block Matrix Formulas,439B.5.1Submatrices,Partitioned Matrices,and Blocks,439B.5.2Rank and Linear Dependence,440B.5.3Conformable Block Operations,441B.5.4Block Matrix Inversion Formula,