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1、Chapter 3 Morphology Lexicon is the collection of all the words of a language.It is synonymous with“vocabulary”.Words are the focus of the study of lexicon,so the emphasis of this chapter falls upon words,i.e.,the analysis and creation of words.Linguists define the word as the smallest free form fou
2、nd in language.The features of word Word is meaningful;word is a grammatical unit;word can be used independently;word is relatively stable and uninterruptible.Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.The total number of words stored in
3、 the brain is called the lexicon.Words are the smallest free units of language that unite sounds with meaning.Morphology is a branch of linguistics,whereas lexicon is a component of language instead of a branch of linguistics.Open class word and closed class word Open class words-content words of a
4、language to which we can regularly add new words,such as nouns,adjectives,verbs and adverbs,e.g.beatnik(a member of the Beat Generation),hacker,email,internet,“做秀，时装秀”in Chinese.Closed class words-grammatical or functional words,such as conjunction,articles,preposition and pronouns.Morpheme-the mini
5、mal unit of meaning.The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a morpheme.-Words are composed of morphemes.Words may consist of one morpheme or more morphemes,e.g.1-morpheme boy,desire 2-morpheme boy+ish,desir(e)+ble 3-morpheme boy+ish+ness,desir(e)+bl(e)+ity 4-morpheme gentle+man+li+ness,un
6、+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity 5-morpheme un+gentle+man+li+ness 7-morpheme anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism Morph:when people wish to distinguish the sound of a morpheme from the entire morpheme,they may sued the term.It is the phonetic realization of a morpheme Allomorph:A morpheme may be represented by di
7、fferent forms,called allomorphs.It is the phonetic variant of a morpheme.Some morphemes have a single form in all contexts,such as“dog,bark,cat”,etc.In other instances,there may be some variation,that is,a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms.They are said to be the allomorphs of the
8、 morpheme,the plural morpheme may be represented by:map-maps s dog-dogs z watch-watches iz mouse-mice ai ox-oxen n tooth-teeth sheep-sheep Each of the underlined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme.Affix Prefix-morphemes that occur only before others,e.g.un-,dis,anti-,ir-,etc.Suffix-morph
9、emes that occur only after others,e.g.-ful,-er,-ish,-ness,-able,-tive,tion,etc.Root:The root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning.A root is the base 欢迎下载 2 form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity.A root may be free or b
10、ound(such as mit,tain,cur,ceive).An affix is naturally bound.Free morpheme&bound morpheme Free morpheme-is one that may constitute a word(free form)by itself,such as bed,tree,sing,dance,etc.Bound morpheme-is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme.They can not stand by themselves,such a
11、s“-s”in“dogs”,“al”in“national”,“dis-”in“disclose”,“ed”in“recorded”,etc.Some morphemes constitute words by themselves.These morphemes are called free morphemes.Other morphemes are never used independently in speech and writing.They are always attached to free morphemes to form new words.These morphem
12、es are called bound morphemes.The distinction between a free morphemes and a bound morpheme is whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.Free morphemes are the roots of words,while bound morphemes are the affixes(prefixes and suffixes).Derivational morpheme&inflectional morpheme Deri
13、vational morphemes-the morphemes which change the category,or grammatical class of words,e.g.modern-modernize,length-lengthen,fool-foolish,etc.Inflectional morphemes-the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers,signifying such concepts as tense,number,case and so on;they neve
14、r change their syntactic category,never add any lexical meaning,e.g.a)number:tables apples cars b)person,finiteness and aspect:talk/talks/talking/talked c)case:John/Johns Inflectional morphemes in modern English indicate case and number of nouns,tense and aspect of verbs,and degree of adjectives and
15、 adverbs.Derivational morphemes are bound morphemes added to existing forms to construct new words.English affixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes.Some languages have infixes,bound morphemes which are inserted into other morphemes.Derivational morphemes-affix(suffix,infix,prefix)+root Inflect
16、ional morphemes 11 11 types of inflectional morphemes in English Noun+-s,-s/es possessive;plural Verb+-s/es,-ing,-ed,-ed/-en 3rd person singular;present participle;past tense,past participle Adj+-er,-est comparative;superlative Inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category of a word I
17、nflectional morphemes influence the whole category;Derivational morphemes are opposite Order:root(stem)+derivational+inflectional Conclusion:classification of morphemes 欢迎下载 3 Morphemes Free morphemes Bound morphemes Inflexional Derivational:affixes Prefixes Suffixes Morphological rules The rules th
18、at govern the formation of words,e.g.the“un-+-”rule.unfair unthinkable unacceptable Compounding is another way to form new words,e.g.landlady rainbow undertake The process of putting affixes to existing forms to create new words is called derivation.Words thus formed are called derivatives.Compounds
19、 Noun compounds daybreak(N+V)playboy(V+N)haircut(N+V)callgirl(V+N)windmill(N+N)Verb compounds brainwash(N+V)lipread(N+V)babysit(N+V)Adjective compounds maneating(N+Ving)heartfelt(N+Ved)dutyfree(N+adj.)Preposition compounds into(P+P)throughout(P+P)Some points about compounds When the two words are in
20、 the same grammatical category,the compound will be in this category,e.g.postbox,landlady,icy-cold,blue-black When the two words fall into different categories,the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compound,e.g.head-strong,pickpocket Compounds have different s
21、tress patterns from the non-compounded word sequence,e.g.red coat,green house The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.Formation of new words 1.Inflection:it is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as num
22、ber,person,finiteness,aspect and case.2.Derivation Derivation forms a word by adding an affix to a free morpheme.Since derivation can apply more than once,it is possible to create a derived word with a number of affixes.For example,if we add affixes to the word friend,we can form befriend,friendly,u
23、nfriendly,friendliness,unfriendliness,etc.This process of adding more than one affix to a free morpheme is termed complex derivation.Derivation is also constrained by phonological factors.Some English suffixes also change the word stress.3.Compounding 欢迎下载 4 Compounding is another common way to form
24、 words.It is the combination of free morphemes.The majority of English compounds are the combination of words from the three classes nouns,verbs and adjectives and fall into the three classes.In compounds,the rightmost morpheme determines the part of speech of the word.The meaning of compounds is no
25、t always the sum of meaning of the components.4.Conversion(invention)Conversion is the process putting an existing word of one class into another class.Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.5.Clipping(abbreviations)front,back,front and back Clipping is a process that shortens
26、a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more syllables.Clipped words are initially used in spoken English on informal occasions.Some clipped words have become widely accepted,and are used even in formal styles.For example,the words bus(omnibus),vet(veterinarian),gym(gymnasium),fridge(refrigerator)and
27、 fax(facsimile)are rarely used in their complete form.6.Blending Blending is a process that creates new words by putting together non-morphemic parts of existing words.For example,smog(smoke+frog),brunch(a meal in the middle of morning,replacing both breakfast and lunch),motel(motor+hotel).There is
28、also an interesting word in the textbook for junior middle school students “plike”(a kind of machine that is like both a plane and a bike).7.Back-formation Back-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix.For example,the word televise is back-formed from te
29、levision.Originally,the word television is formed by putting the prefix tele-(far)to the root vision(viewing).At the same time,there is a suffix sion in English indicating nouns.Then people consider the sion in the word television as that suffix and drop it to form the verb televise.8.Acronyms Acron
30、yms are formed by putting together the initial letters of all words in a phrase or title.Acronyms can be read as a word and are usually longer than abbreviations,which are read letter by letter.This type of word formation is common in names of organizations and scientific terminology.9.Eponyms Epony
31、ms are words that originate from proper names of individuals or places.For example,the word sandwich is a common noun originating from the fourth Earl of Sandwich,who put his food between two slices of bread so that he could eat while gambling.10.Coinage Coinage is a process of inventing words not b
32、ased on existing morphemes.This way of word formation is especially common in cases where industry requires a word for a new product.For example,Kodak and Coca-cola.11.Borrowing:English in its development has managed to widen its vocabulary by Borrowing words from other languages.Greek,Latin,French,
33、Arabic and other languages have all played an active role in this process,such as“atom,electricity”from Greek,“cancer,tumour”from Latin,“violin,pizza”from Italian.12.Onomatopoeia:it is a way of creating words by imitating the sounds of the outside world.Supplementary Exercises Chapter 3：Morphology I
34、.Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1.Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2.Words are the smallest meaningful units of language.3.Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology,so is a morpheme the ba
35、sic unit in the study of 欢迎下载 5 morphology.4.The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.5.Bound morphemes include two types:roots and affixes.6.Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number,tense
36、,degree,and case.7.The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem,which can be a bound root,a free morpheme,or a derived form itself.8.Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word,not the meaning of it.9.There are rules that govern which affix can be
37、 added to what type of stem to form a new word.Therefore,words formed according to the morphological rules are acceptable words.10.Phonetically,the stress of a compound always falls on the first element,while the second element receives secondary stress.II.Fill in each blank below with one word whic
38、h begins with the letter given:11.M _ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.12.The affix“-ish”in the word boyish conveys a g_ meaning.13.B_ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes,either free or bound,to form a word.14.Affixes are of t
39、wo types:inflectional affixes and d_ affixes.15.D_ affixes are added to an existing form to create words.16.A s_ is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it may case change its part of speech.17.C_ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to creat
40、e new words.18.The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word are called m_ rules.19.In terms of morphemic analysis,d_ can be viewed as the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.20.A s_ can be a bound root,a free morpheme,or a derived form itself to w
41、hich a derivational affix can be added.III.There are four choices following each statement.Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:21.The morpheme“vision”in the common word“television”is a(n)_.A.bound morpheme B.bound form C.inflectional morpheme D.free morpheme 22.The compound word“boo
42、kstore”is the place where books are sold.This indicates that the meaning of a compound _.A.is the sum total of the meaning of its components B.can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemes C.is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.D.None of the above.23.The part of speech of t
43、he compounds is generally determined by the part of speech of _.A.the first element B.the second element C.either the first or the second element D.both the first and the second elements.24._ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes,either free or boun
44、d,to form a word.A.Free morphemes B.Bound morphemes C.Bound words D.Words 25._ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words 欢迎下载 6 are formed.A.Syntax B.Grammar C.Morphology D.Morpheme 26.The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _.A.lex
45、ical B.morphemic C.grammatical D.semantic 27.Bound morphemes are those that _.A.have to be used independently B.can not be combined with other morphemes C.can either be free or bound D.have to be combined with other morphemes.28._ modify the meaning of the stem,but usually do not change the part of
46、speech of the original word.A.Prefixes B.Suffixes C.Roots D.Affixes 29._ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the linguists.A.Words B.Morphemes C.Phonemes D.Sentences 30.“-s”in the word“books”is _.A.a derivative affix B.a stem C.an inflectional affix D.a root IV.Defin
47、e the following terms:31.morphology 32.inflectional morphology 33.derivational morphology 34.morpheme 35.free morpheme 36.bound morpheme 37.root 38.affix 39.prefix 40.suffix 41.derivation 42.Compounding V.Answer the following questions:43.What are the main features of the English compounds?44.Discus
48、s the types of morphemes with examples.Suggested answers to supplementary exercises Chapter 3 Morphology IV.Define the following terms:31.Morphology:Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.32.inflectional morphology:The
49、inflectional morphology studies the inflections 33.derivational morphology:Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation.34.Morpheme:It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.35.free morpheme:Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely
50、 all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.36.bound morpheme:Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes,either free or bound,to form a word.37.Root:A root is often seen as part of a word;it can never stand by itsel