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1、外文出处：Tourism Management2009 Vol. 30 No. 6 pp. 878-889Convention industry and destination clusters: Evidence from Italy Author: Cristina BerniniNationality: ItalyAdapt from: Tourism management,2009,30(6)Abstract: The study investigates aspects of the convention industry not well explored in the liter
2、ature. Using a framework of cluster theory, a quantitative method is used to assess the Italian convention industry and its relationships with local infrastructure and tourism product supply. The development of the different phases of the life cycle of convention destinations in Italy is outlined an
3、d locational factors which influence them are investigated. Managerial and political strategies which would enhance the competitiveness of the Italian convention industry in the global market are proposed. Furthermore, the study evaluates the use of the cluster theory in investigating the hospitalit
4、y industry, contributing to the debate on local tourism development.Keywords: Convention Industry, Cluster Theory, Local Development, Clustern Analysis, Quantile Regression. Interest in geographical networks and their role in economic development has grown over the last few years because economies t
5、end to develop through the emergence of territorial agglomeration and company networks (Enright, 2001). An emerging industry centres on some natural resource, market need or local skill. As the industry develops, new firms, inputs and service enterprises are created. New economic sectors emerge thro
6、ugh spill-overs and transferred knowledge and global competitiveness increases. Territorial development and competitiveness are also very important for the tourism industry. Tourism is mainly constituted by SMEs, so functioning within a network may contribute to overcoming production, managerial and
7、 commercial difficulties. In order to increase competition and strategic positioning in the worldwide market, tourism destinations should encourage the emergence of tourism networks and the analysis of their structure. Over the past decade, several attempts have been made using the industrial distri
8、ct and cluster theories to investigate tourism networks and their role in local development.Industrial districts (Marshall,1966) are agglomerations of SMEs specialising in different parts of a given production activity. Although industrial district theory analyses conditions for the development of a
9、 local vertically-integrated network of firms operating in manufacturing markets, some authors have tried to adapt industrial district theory to the tourism industry (Gets, 1993; Hjalager, 2000; Pearce, 2001; Lazzeretti, 2003). Despite the use of industrial district theory to investigate tourism net
10、works, some doubts are cast on its applicability. Tourism is a sector with a fragmented structure typically based on SMEs but it is particularly characterised by the presence of a large number of participants in the network who are not necessarily involved in the same economic sectors. For this reas
11、on Cluster theory is possibly a better analytic model for the investigation of the tourism industry. Cluster theory has its origins in the studies of Porter (1998), who defines cluster as geographic concentrations of interconnected companies, specialised suppliers, service providers and firms in rel
12、ated industries and associated institutions in particular fields that compete but also cooperate. Although Porters work is manly focused on the manufacturing industry, it has also been extended and applied to service industries, such as tourism. Some differences emerge between the two theories. Indu
13、strial districts are usually local clusters of single-product industries. In contrast, cluster theory refers to concentrations of interrelated but different industries displaying a shared understanding of the competitive business ethic emanating from competitive theory (Jackson & Murphy, 2002). The
14、theory of industrial districts generally refers to an homogeneous product but this is not the case when dealing with tourism destinations. Porters cluster theory is better designed to accommodate a heterogeneous product in which the majority of cluster participants serve different industry segments.
15、 These points of difference make the analytical framework of industrial districts less applicable to tourism destinations than the cluster approach. In the last ten years several studies have used cluster theory to investigate the role of tourism in influencing local growth. In this field of researc
16、h the attention is mainly focused on the generalisation of the industrial model as an analytical framework for measuring the success of tourism destinations and on the role of tourism enterprise clusters for their innovation and contribution to community development (Go & Williams, 1993; Michael, 20
17、03; Van Den Berg, Braum, & Van Widen, 2001; Tinsley & Lynch, 2001; Jackson & Murphy, 2002, 2006; Nordin, 2003; Hall, 2004, 2005a, 2005b; Canina, Enz, & Harrison, 2005; Saxena, 2005; Jackson, 2006; Novelli, Smithz, & Spencer, 2006). Otherwise, as stressed by Michael (2003), the cluster theory is vali
18、d in macro-regional analysis but presents some drawbacks when applied to small regional environments. The author suggests expanding the concept of cluster to micro-cluster, the so-called diagonal cluster (diagonal integration in Poon, 1994),labelled in this way to refer to the concentration of compl
19、ementary (or symbiotic) firms, which each add value to the activities of other firms, even though their products may be quite distinct. In this sense, diagonal clustering brings together firms that supply separate products and services, effectively creating a bundle that will be consumed as though i
20、t was one item. For tourism and other service industries, this is often routine-for example, a tourism destination requires firms to supply the activity, provide transport, hospitality, accommodation, etc. The co-location of many complementary providers adds value to the tourism experience, and the
21、converse may also be true, in that the absence of key services restricts the development of other firms (Michael, 2003).In essence, a firm producing a complementary product or service is not a competitor, because its activities add more value to the product than the product alone. Thus, cooperation
22、creates alliances and networks, makes better use of skills and resources and encourages innovative business activities which improve local development. The diagonal cluster theoretical framework can also be useful as an interpretive model for the local development of convention destinations. It is a
23、 particularly interesting model to apply in the case of Italy because it supports the main guidelines defined by national tourism legislation. The national legislation reform on tourism defines the Tourism Local System (TLS) as homogeneous or integrated destinations, also concerning areas which belo
24、ng to different regions, characterised by an integrated supply of cultural and environmental goods and tourism entertainments, including typical agricultural products and local arts and crafts, or by a wide presence of single or cooperating tourism enterprises (Law nr. 135,2001). As the TLS definiti
25、on reflects cluster theoretical paradigm in the cooperation, integration and homogeneity principles of the Italian tourism industry, this might be useful in exploring some interesting questions. Do groups of destinations exist with homogeneous tourism characteristics? In TLSs, do local sub-systems s
26、pecialised in different hosting segments, such as the convention segment (CLS), co-exist? Are these sub-systems integrated with each other? What are the main local features supporting a convention and tourism network? Which destination factors encourage future CLS growth and support emerging cluster
27、s? What exists or should exist in a destination in order for convention networks to develop?In answer to these questions, we can use the theoretical model proposed by Porter (1998).In his diamond model of competition, the Author essentially focuses on four components of competitive advantage: (1) de
28、mand conditions in terms of the quality, level and nature of tourist interest; (2) local factor conditions, such as a regions natural resources and location; (3) tourism-related and supporting industries, including accommodation, food and beverage outlets, tourist attractions, the transport sector a
29、nd various government agencies; (4) government policy supporting communities with information and infrastructure, facilitating inputs such as an educated workforce, maintaining an appropriate framework for regulation of standards and ensuring macro-economic and political stability. Such a conceptual
30、 model could be usefully applied to tourism and convention destinations. The principles of the diamond model can be combined with cluster theory to provide a more comprehensive and balanced approach to regional economic development and the role of tourism within it.However, the conceptualisation of
31、the sectors involved in tourism networks and the nature of their interrelationships in a cluster is not easily standardized. The complexity of the cluster concept suggests that no single definition or methodology is universally correct but varies depending on the economic sector analyzed and on its
32、strategic practices and policies. Considering the main aims of the paper, we have decided to focus on some of the key aspects of tourism and convention destinations: hospitality, accommodation, convention services, educational institutions, transport, population and local resources (Fig. 1). Our ori
33、ginal conceptual model is the basis for designing an empirical methodology.Fig 1. The proposed conceptual model of locational competitive advantage in convention clustersThe empirical analysis is conducted in two steps. Firstly, we suggest using the statistical technique of Cluster Analysis for iden
34、tifying the municipalities with similar tourism and convention supply and locational resources. This statistical method enables the identification of the different typologies of CLSs and the evaluation of characteristics of CLSs that are in different stages of their convention production life cycle.
35、 Secondly, Quantile regression models are introduced to estimate the impact of local characteristics on the convention industry over the life cycle of a CLS. This approach investigates the different influences that local competitive advantage factors have on the conference industry in relation to th
36、e phases of a CLS life cycle. Lastly, model estimates have enabled us to propose managerial and political strategies that should be implemented to increase the competitiveness of the Italian convention system in the global market.会展产业和目的群：意大利实证分析作者：克里斯蒂娜贝尼尼国籍：意大利出处：旅游管理，2009年第30卷第6期摘要：关于会展业的研究在文献研究方
37、面做得还不够好。使用集群理论的框架，并使用分数位方法来评估意大利会展产业以及其与当地基础设施和旅游产品供给之间的关系。本文概述了意大利会展目的地生命周期不同阶段的发展情况以及对影响他们的区位因素进行了调查。并提出为了增强意大利会展业在全球市场竞争力的管理方法和政治策略。关键字：会展产业，集群理论，本土发展，集群分析，分数位回归在过去几十年里，人们对地理网络及其在经济发展中所起的作用越来越感兴趣，这是因为经济趋向于通过领土聚集和企业网络的兴起发展起来的(Enright, 2001).一个新兴的产业集中在一些自然资源、市场需求或当地技能上。随着产业的发展，新企业、投资和服务企业也随之产生。通过溢出
38、效应，知识转移及全球竞争力的提升，出现了新的经济领域。国土开发和竞争力对旅游产业也是非常重要的。旅游业主要由中小型企业组成，因此网络有助于克服生产，管理和交易上的困难。为了增强竞争力和在全球市场上进行战略定位，旅游目的地应鼓励创建旅游网络并对他们进行结构分析。在过去十年里，已多次尝试使用工业区和集群理论来探讨旅游网络及其在地方发展中的作用。工业区是在不同专业领域进行生产活动的中小企业群(Marshall,1966)。虽然工业区理论用来分析当地垂直一体化企业在制造业市场运营的网络发展条件，但有些学者曾尝试把工业区理论应用于旅游业(Gets,1993;Hjalager,2000; Pearce,2
39、001;Lazzeretti,2003)。但运用工业区理论来探讨旅游网络，对于其是否适用还是存在一些疑问的。旅游业是一个结构松散的部门，通常以中小企业为基础，而它的一个突出特点是在现有网络中具有大量的参与性，但却不必涉及相同的经济部门。正是由于这个原因，集群理论可能是用来探讨旅游业相对更好的分析模型。最初使用集群理论的是波特(1998)，他把集群定义为相互关联的企业在地理上的集中，尤其是供应商，旅游提供商和企业的相关产业与相关机构在特定领域下不仅是竞争对手而且还是合作伙伴。尽管波特的研究集中在制造业，但是这个理论已经扩展并应用到服务行业，就像旅游业。两种理论的一些区别也显现出来了。工业区通常是
40、单一产品工业的本地集群。而集群理论则恰好相反，它涉及的是相互关联的程度，但却是不同产业之间对源于竞争理论的极具竞争性的商业道德的共同理解(Jackson ,Murphy,2002)。工业区理论通常是涉及同质产品的，但在处理旅游目的地问题时却不是这样的。波特的集群理论能更好的应用于协调同质产品，那些集群参与者服务于不同的细分产业。这些点的区别与工业区的分析框架与集群理论相比更不适用于旅游目的地的研究。在过去的十几年里，几项研究已经应用集群理论来探讨旅游的角色对当地发展的影响。在这一领域的研究主要关注产业模型的推广，作为一种分析框架，主要用来评估旅游目的地的成功和旅游企业集群在创新中发挥的作用以及
41、对社区发展所做的贡献(Go,Williams,1993;Michael,2003;Van Den Berg,Braum, Van Widen,2001;Tinsley,Lynch,2001;Jackson,Murphy,2002,2006;Nordin, 2003;Hall,2004,2005a,2005b;Canina,Enz,Harrison,2005;Saxena,2005;Jackson,2006;Novelli,Smithz,Spencer,2006)。 然而，Michael(2003)所强调的，集群理论在宏观区域分析中是不适用的，现今在进行小区域分析时仍存在一些缺点。作者建议把集群
42、概念扩展为微观集群概念。所谓的对角集群(Poon,1994)是互补企业的集合，每个企业增加其他企业活动的价值，即使他们的产品完全不同。从这个意义上讲，对角集群使企业相互合作提供独立的产品和服务，有效地创建一个组合，作为一个整体来消费。对于旅游业及其他服务产业来说，通常都是这样的。例如，一个旅游目的地需要企业来提供各类活动，交通，酒店，住宿等等。互补的供应商之间的协同定位增加了旅游体验的价值，反过来也可能成立，在那些缺乏主要服务的地区，其他企业的发展就受到了限制(Michael, 2003)。事实上，一个企业生产互补的产品或服务并不是竞争者，因为他们的活动相对于单独的产品而言赋予了产品更多的价值
43、。这样，合作创建了联盟以及网络，以更好地使用技能和资源，鼓励经济活动创新以推动当地发展。对角集群理论框架也可以作为会展目的地发展的解说模型。这是一个特别有趣的模型当它应用于意大利时，因为意大利拥护国家旅游立法主导的方针。有关旅游的国家立法改革把当地旅游系统定义为同类或整合目的地，也涉及到属于不同区域的空间，具有文化、环境商品和旅游娱乐业集成供给的特点，包括传统农业产品和当地手工艺品，或者是单个或合作旅游企业提供的大量的现有产品(Law nr.135,2001)。当地旅游系统的定义反应了集群理论范例在意大利旅游业的合作、整合和同质性原则，这可能对探索一些有趣的问题会有帮助。目的地群体有同质旅游的
44、特点吗？在当地旅游系统中，当地的子系统在不同的接待区域够专业吗，就像会展区域，能共存吗？这些子系统是否每个都相互协调？承办一个会展活动或构建旅游网络，当地的主要特色是什么？那个目的地要素是否促进当地旅游系统未来的发展和支持新兴的集群？为了会展网络的发展，在目的地要具备什么或应该具备什么？回答这些问题，我们可以使用波特在1988年提出的理论模型。在他的竞争力钻石模型中，作者主要关注竞争力优势的四个要素：（1）旅游兴趣的质量、水平和本质方面的需求情况；（2）当地因素条件，例如当地的自然资源和区位；（3）旅游相关及支持产业，包括住宿业、餐饮点，景区，交通和各种政府机构。（4）政府政策为社区提供信息和
45、基础设施支持，便于输入受过教育的劳动力，维护一个合理的法规标准框架，确保宏观经济和政治环境的稳定。这一概念模型应用于旅游业和会展目的地是非常有用。钻石模型的原则结合集群理论可以为当地经济发展及旅游业在其中的地位提供一种更为合理和均衡的方法。然而，包含在旅游网络部分的概念化和在集群中他们之间内在联系的本质很难标准化。复杂的集群概念表明没有单一的定义或方法是通用的，大多数是根据经济分析和它的战略实践和政策来决定的。考虑到本文的主旨，我们决定集中研究旅游和会展目的地的一些关键要点：酒店，住宿，会展服务，教育机构，交通，人口和当地资源(图1)。我们原始的概念模型是设计实证方法的基础。需求条件l 服务业
46、l 饭店l 技术服务公司l 餐饮企业l 休闲产业l 会议服务l 会议机构l 饭店品质相关和支撑产业条件要素公司战略和竞争的环境l 会议局，农业贸易政策l 国际机场l 大学l 自然资源l 人口图1 会展集群的地方竞争优势的概念模型实证分析分两个步骤。首先，我们建议使用集群分析的统计方法来识别城市之间相似的旅游和会展供给情况以及本土资源。这个统计方法能够识别不同类型的当地会展区域和评估在会展产品生命周期的不同阶段的情况，当地会展区域的特性。其次，分位数回归模型用来评估地方特色对当地会展区域会展产业生命周期的影响。这个方法用来探究本土竞争因素对与当地区域会展生命周期阶段有关的会展产业的不同影响。最后
47、，模型评估方法使得我们提出管理方法和政治策略，以提高意大利会展系统在全球市场的竞争力。外文翻译之二：Conference and Exhibition Tourism in the Developing World: The South African ExperienceAuthor: Christian M. RogersonNationality: South AfricaAdapted from: Urban forum,2005,16Conferences and exhibitions are usually treated together rather than as two
48、separate activities because there is an increasing convergence between them (Law,1987: 86). Traditionally, many conferences include exhibitions and exhibitions often give rise to conferences. None the less, as Law (1987: 87) observes the apogee of convergence between conferences and exhibitions is t
49、he emergence of the multi-purpose convention centre which consists of several large venues which can be used flexibly either for conference or exhibition purposes. Hiller (1995: 375) argues that conferences and exhibitions are a special kind of tourism as theoretically they represent the propelling factor for attendance rather than the characteristics of the destination itself. The me