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1、 Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学 Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学 General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言 language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communic
2、ation.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。4.识别特征 Design Features It refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。Arbitrariness 任意性 Productivity 多产性 Duality 双重性 Displacement 移位性 Cultural transmission 文化传递 The design
3、features mentioned in the course book include arbitrariness,productivity or creativity,duality,displacement and cultural transmission.By arbitrariness it is meant that the symbols used in human language are arbitrary,i.e.there is no logical connection between the symbols and what they stand for.The
4、feature of productivity means that language is productive or creative,i.e.it is possible for its users to construct and understand an unlimited number of sentences,including sentences they have never heard before.Duality is a feature of the structure of the human language system,which consists of tw
5、o levels.At the lower level there exist a limited number of sounds which are meaningless,while at the higher level these meaningless sounds can be arranged and rearranged in various ways to form meaningful language units,unlimited in number.The feature of displacement means that language can be used
6、 to refer to things which are present or not present,real or unreal,in the past,present,or future.Cultural transmission,in contrast to genetic transmission,refers to the fact that human babies,though born with the ability to acquire a language,must be taught to use it.5.语言能力 Competence Competence is
7、 the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用 performance Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的表达。7.历时语言学 Diachronic linguistics The study of language change through time.a diachronic study of language is a historical
8、study,which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.8.共时语言学 synchronic linguistics The study of a given language at a given time.9.语言 langue The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.言语 parole The realization of langue in actual use.11
9、.规定性 Prescriptive It aims to lay down rules for”correct”behavior,to tell people what they should say and what should not say.12.描述性 Descriptive A linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.二、知识点 1.Language is not an isolated phenomenon,its a social activity carried out
10、in a certain social environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。2.几种观点和现象的提出者：瑞士语言学家 F.de Saussure F.de Saussure:Langue 和 parole 的区别 U.S.A linguist N.Chomsky美国语言学家 N.Chomsky in1950 针对 Saussure s langue&parole 提出 Competence 和 performance 3.the word“language”preceded by the zero-art
11、icle,it implies that linguistics studies not any particular language.Language 一词前不加冠词说明语言学家不只研究一种特定的语言。三、问答题 1.What are major branches of linguistics?What does each study?Phonetics-its defined as the study of the phonic medium of language,its concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds la
12、nguages.Phonology-the study of sounds systemsthe inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.Morphology-Its a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Syntax-its a subfield of linguist
13、ics that studies the sentence structure of a language.Semantics-Its simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.Pragmatics-the study of meaning in context of words.Sociolinguistics the study of language with reference to society.Psycholinguistics-the study of language with reference to the
14、 working of the mind.Applied linguistics-the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.2.What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?Modern linguistics is descriptive,its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language d
15、ate.现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。Traditional grammar is prescriptive.It is based on“high”written language.传统语法是规定性的，研究“高级”书面语。3.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic?Why?Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic,focusing on the present-day language,unless the various states of a
16、language are successfully studied,it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究，否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。Chapter Two Phonology 一、定义 1.宽式音标 Broad transcription The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only.2.窄式音标 Narrow tr
17、anscription The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.3.清音 Voiceless When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart,letting air go through without causing vibration,the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds.4.浊音 Voicing Sounds produced while the v
18、ocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds.5.元音 Vowel The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels.6.辅音 Consonants The sounds in the production of which there is an obstru
19、ction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants.7.音位 Phoneme The basic unit in phonology,its a collection of distinctive phonetic features.8.音位变体 Allophones Different phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allophones of that phone
20、me.9.音素 phone A phonetic unit or segment.It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.Its a speech sound we use when speaking a language.10.最小对立对 Minimal pair When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings,the two words a
21、re said to form a minimal pair.11.超切分特征 Suprasegmental The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features.the main suprasegmental features include stress,intonation and tone.12.互补分布 complementary distribution P35 Two allophones of the same phoneme are
22、said to be in complementary distribution.13.语言的语音媒介 Phonic medium of language The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language.在人类交际中有着一定意义、对语言学研究来说举足轻重。有限的声音是语音媒介。14.爆破音 stops When a obstruction creat
23、ed by the speech organs is total or complete,the speech sound produced with the obstruction released and the air passing out again is called a stop or a plosive.they areb p t d k g 二、知识点 1.statistics resulting from careful investigations show that there have been over 5,000 languages in the world,ab
24、out two thirds of which have not had written form.2.Of the two media of language,speech is more basic than writing.3.Phonetics 组成及研究对象 详见教材 Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学 Auditory phonetics 听觉语音学 Acoustic phonetics 声学语音学 4.Articulatory Apparatus/Organs of Speech Pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 Oral.口腔 greatest s
25、ource of modification of air stream found here Nasal 鼻腔 5.The tongue is the most flexible,responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other,the extreme back of the tongue can be raised towards the uvula and a speech sound can be thus produced as is used in Arabic and French.6.Obstruction
26、 between the back of the tongue and the velar area results in the pronunciation ofk andg,the narrowing of space between the hard palate and the front of the tongue leads to the soundj;the obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the soundstandd.7.nasal cons
27、onants:m/n/8.A Phone is a phonetic unit or segment.9.English has four basic types of intonation:Falling tone;Rising tone;Fall-rise tone;Rise-fall tone 三、问答题 1.How are the English consonants classified?By place of articulation and.By manner of articulation 根据发音位置，发音方式，归纳各辅音的特征。2How do phonetics and p
28、honology differ in their focus of study?Phonetics description of all speech sounds and their differences.Phonology description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.3.Whats a phone?how is it different from a phoneme?how a re allophones related to a p
29、honeme?Phonea speech sound,a phonetic unit.Phonemea collection of abstract sound features,a phonological unit.Allophonesactual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.4.What is a minimal pair and a minimal set?Why is it important to identify the minimal set in a language?为什么区分最小对立组在一
30、种语言中非常重要?Minimal pair two sound combinations identical in every way except in one sound element that occurs in the same position.除了出现在同一位置的一个语音成分不同外,其他部分都一样的两个语音组合.Minimal set a group of sound combinations with the above feature.一组具有上述特征的语音组合.By identifying the minimal pair or the minimal set of a l
31、anguage,a philologist can identify its phonemes.通过分析一种语言的最小对立对或最小对立组,音位学家能区分出它的音位.5.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow one transcription differ?Broad transcription one letter symbol for one sound.Narrow transcriptiondiacritics are added to the one-letter symbols to show the fin
32、er differences between sounds.Chapter Three Morphology 一、定义 1.词素 Morpheme The basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest meaningful unit of language.2.自由词素 Free Morpheme Free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves.3.黏着词素 Bound morphemes Bound
33、morphemes are these morphemes that cannot be used by themselves,must be combined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently.4.词根 Root Root is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.5.词缀 Affix The collective term for the type of
34、formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.6.曲折词缀 inflectional affixes The manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,tense,degree and case.7.派生词缀 Derivational affixes The manifestation of relation between stems and affi
35、xes through the addition of derivational affixes.8.词干 Stem A stem is the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added.a stem can be a bound root,a free morpheme,or a derived form itself.9.形态学规则 Morphological rules They are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem t
36、o form a new word.10.前缀 Prefix Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem,but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word,exceptions are the prefixes be-and en(m)-11.后缀 Suffix Suffixes are added to the end of stems,they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change
37、its part of speech.3.In using the morphological rules,we must guard against Over-generalization.二、知识点 1.some words maybe said to contain a root morpheme.2.Compound features:orthographically,a compound can be written as one word,two separate words with or without a hyphen in between.Syntactically,the
38、 part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element.semantically,the meaning of a compound is idiomatic,not calculable from the meanings of all its component Chapter Four Syntax 一、定义 1.句子 sentence A structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete
39、 statement,question or command.2.语言运用 Linguistic competence The system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker.3.谓语 Predicate The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate.4.层次结构 H
40、ierarchical structure The sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic categories of each structural constituent,such as NP and VP.5.语法关系 Grammatical relations The structural and logical functional relations between every noun phrase and sentence.6.表层结构 S
41、-structure A level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement.7.深层结构 D-structure A level of syntactic representation before the operation of necessary syntactic movement.8.转换原则 Transformation rules Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called tran
42、sformational rules,whose operation may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.二、知识点 1.syntax 这个单词源于 Greek,本义是 arrangement.2.我们把 syntax 的学习看作 a system of rules that govern the formation of grammatical sentence.3.A major goal of linguistics is to show with a consistent and explicit grammati
43、cal theory how syntactic rules account for this grammatical knowledge.4.句子的分类 simple sentence Types of sentences coordinate or compound sentence Complex sentence 简单句-It consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.并列句合成句-It contains two cl
44、auses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction,such as“but”,”and”.ect.复合句It contains two or more clauses,one of which is incorporated into the other.5.In addition to the use of structural tree diagrams,linguists may show the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets and s
45、ubscript labels.6.短语类型 Noun Phrase NP Phrasal Verb Phrase VP Categories Preposition Phrase PP Adjective Phrase AP 三、问答题 1.Use the appropriate phrase structure rules to draw a labeled constituent structure tree diagram for each of the following sentences.For example:The woman hit the man with an umbr
46、ella.Chapter 5 Semantics 一、定义 1.命名论 The naming theory The naming theory,one of the oldest notions concerning meaning,and also a very primitive one was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.According to this theory,the linguistic forms or symbols,in other words,the words used in a language are
47、taken to be labels of the objects they stand for,so words are just names or labels for things.2.意念论 The conceptualist view It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to;rather,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts i
48、n the mind.3.语境论 Conceptualism Its based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.There are two kinds of context:the situational and the linguistic context.4.行为主义论 Behaviorism It refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as t
49、he”situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.This theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response.5.意义 Sense Its concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.Its the collection of all the features of t he lin
50、guistic form,its abstract and de-contextualized.6.所指意义 Reference It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real,physical world.It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.7.同义词 Synonymy It refers to the sameness or close similarity