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1、句法与阅读：英语的基本句子结构在完成了对于词汇的所指意义(d e n o t a t i v e m e a n i n g)的辨识以后，我们就可以进入篇章阅读的第一个层次句子的阅读了。句子是语篇的基本组成单位，是进入作者话语的第一步，也就是说,只有在接触了句子之后，你才真正接触到了作者。在不构成句子的情况下，所有的单词都是语言的一个个零散的部件。只有形成了句子才有了真正的意义。所以说，对于句子的阅读理解是至关重要的。我们在具体的阅读实践中经常碰到这样的情况，那就是在一个句子中没有任何生疏的单词，但是就是捉摸不出它的意思来。笔者认为这主要有三方面的原因，第一是读者对于背景知识缺乏了解；第二是句
2、子结构比较复杂，从句过多；第三是有一些特殊的句型读者没有掌握。背景知识的介绍不属本书的探讨范围，所以也就搁置一边。我们主要就后两个因素进行必要的有关探讨。英语句子分为简单句(s i m p l e s e n t e n c e)和多重句(m u l t i p l e s e n t e n c e)t h i r t e e n d e c i m al (p o i n t)n i n e o n e;0.23=n o u g h t d e m i c al t w o t h r e e;(4)算术式的读法:2+3=5 T w o p l u s t h r e e i s (e q
3、u al s,i s e qu al t o)f i v e.5-3=2 Fi v e m i n u s t h r e e i s e qu al t o t w o.3X 2=6 T h r e e t i m e s t w o i s s i x.o r T h r e e b y t w o ar e s i x.94-3=3 N i n e d i v i d e d b y t h r e e m ak e s t h r e e.形 容 词(二)：1.限定用法：形容词紧靠着(代)名词，直接修饰该(代)名词。(1)前位修饰：(A)字尾为e n 或表比较的形容词，大多只能作限定用
4、法，放在名词的前面。a w o o d e n l e g;e ar t h e n w ar e;h i s e l d e r s i s t e r;t h e u p p e r r o o m,e t c.(B)下列这些形容词只有限定用法，没有叙述用法。u p p e r;f o r m e r;l at t e r;o u t e r;i n n e r;u t m o s t;m e r e;o n l y;u t t e r;m ai n;c e r t ai n;v e r y;l i v e;s p ar e;(C)形容词前有s o;n o;t o o;h o w 等字时，
5、不定冠词应放在形容词之后。He c o u l d n o t d o i t i n s o s h o r t a t i m e.He i s n o l e s s r e m ar k ab l e a m an t h an h i s e l d e r b r o t h e r (i s).(2)后位修饰：(A)名词之后的数词+名词+o l d;l o n g;h i g h;w i d e;d e e p;e t c.a m an e i g h t y-f i v e y e ar s o l d;a r i v e r t w o h u n d r e d m i l
6、 e s l o n g;(B)为加强语气或音调美，而将限定形容词放在后面。He h ad a f ac e t h i n an d w o r n,b u t e ag e r an d r e s o l u t e.(C)s o m e t h i n g;an y t h i n g;e v e r y o n e;an y b o d y.+形容词。r 11 t e l l y o u s o m e t h i n g v e r y i m p o r t an t.T h at*s n o t h i n g n e w.(D)由形容词子句省略主词和动词而不的过去(或现在)分
7、词或形容词片语。I h av e an s w e r e d al l t h e l e t t e r s (w h i c h w e r e)r e c e i v e d (b y m e).A l f r e d w as a k i n g an x i o u s f o r h i s p e o p l e,s w e l f ar e.2.叙述用法：形容词作补语，间接地修饰(代)名词。He w as aw ak e al l t h e n i g h t.(主词补语)T h e n o i s e k e p t m e a w a k e.受词补语)注：可作限定用法
8、和叙述用法的形容词。I h av e m an y t r u s t w o r t h y f r i e n d s.和 A l l o f m y f r i e n d s ar e t r u s t w o r t h y.I t w as a h o t an d s u l t r y d ay.和 T h e w e at h e r b e c am e h o t an d s u l t r y.3.作补语的形容词：(1)b e+形容词+介系词：由此结合而成的片语，有些等于及物动词。I am f o n d o f s k i i n g.=I l i k e s k
9、 i i n g.He i s af r ai d o f i t.=He f e ar s i t.注：其他如：b e c ap ab l e o f;b e c o n c e r n e d w i t h;b e (u n)f am i l i ar w i t h (t o);b e l at e f o r;b e s u b j e c t t o;b e w o r t h y o f;e t c.(2)某些已转化为形容词的过去分词，其后通常接at;ab o u t;w i t h;i n;o f 等介词。J o h n i s i n t e r e s t e d i n
10、En g l i s h g r am m ar.He w as s u r p r i s e d at h e r b e h av i o u r.(3)b e+形容词+介系词：可 接(代)名 词，动名词，或名词子句，但名词子句若是t h at 子句须省略介词，因 t h at 子句不可直接作介词的受词。S h e w as n o t aw ar e o f t h e f ac t s.S h e w as n o t aw ar e (o f)h o w m u c h h e r h u s b an d e ar n e d.S h e w as n o t aw ar e t
11、 h at t h e r e i s d an g e r.(4)I t+b e +形容词+t h at 子句I t i s t r u e t h at s h e n e v e r c am e.此类形容词有：c e r t ai n;l i k e l y;o b v i o u s;p l ai n;p o s s i b l e;t r u e;e t c.(A)t h at 子句中的假设法。I t i s ap p r o p r i at e t h at h e (s h o u l d)g e t t h e p o s t,(s h o u l d 可省略)(B)人称形
12、容词亦可接其他连接词引导的子句。r m n o t s u r e w h y h e c am e.r m not clear where she went.4.有关 worth;worth while;worthy 的句型 如下：(A)主词(含it)+be worth+(动)名词(B)It(虚主词)+be worth while+不定词或动名词(C)主词+be worthy+of+(动)名词主 词+be worthy+不定词This book is worth reading.(=It is worth while to read this book.=This book isworthy
13、 of reading.=This book is worthy to be read.)5.like和 as:like只能作介词不能作连接词；as则两者都可。I hoped to succeed as you have(succeeded).I hoped to succeed like you.I hope to succeed*like you have,(like 作连词是非正式的用法)冠词(三)1.不定冠词的用法：(1)a 用在子音前；an用在母音前。An hour(2)表同种类的全体，此时a 带有any的意味。A dog is a faithful animal.(=D ogs a
14、re faithful animals.)(3)等于 o n e0I h av e a s i s t e r an d t w o b r o t h e r s.(4)等于 t h e s am e.B i r d s o f a f e at h e r f l o c k t o g e t h e r.(5)等于 p e r “每一.”。We w o r k e i g h t h o u r s a d ay.N i n e t y m i l e s an h o u r;(6)a=a c e r t ai n,表说话者不认识此人。Do y o u k n o w a M r.S
15、 m i t h?(7)物质名词或抽象名词加a(an)即成普通名词，A s p ar ag u s i s a g r as s,(a=a k i n d o f);T h i s i s a g o o d c l o t h f o r s u m m e r.(8)“h av e (o r t ak e)+a+抽象名词”,与抽象名词的动词形同义。L e t u s t ak e a s w i m.=L e t u s s w i m.2.定冠词的用法：(1)由于上下文的关系，某名词所指的东西已非常明显，或已有一定的范围，该名词应加t h e。S h u t t h e d o o r.
16、Pl e as e p as s m e t h e c as t e r.(2)表该名词的总称。The cow is a useful animal.(=Cows are useful animals.)(3)前面己提过的名词，再度提到时前面加the。Once upon a time there was a little boy who lived in a cottage.The cottage was in the country,and the boy lived there all his life.(4)用于为片语或子句所修饰的名词之前。This is the book that
17、I promised to lend you.(5)用在宇宙(独一无二)的天体名词之前。The sun;the moon;the sky;the earth;(6)用在方位，方向等名词之前。The sun rises in the east and set in the west.(7)乐器的名称前要加the.To play the piano(violin,guitar,flute,etc.)(8)表示单位的名词前要加the。Gasoline is sold by the gallon.Meat is sold by the catty.(9)在最高级的形容词或序数(the first.)之
18、前要加the。Taiw an is t he b e s t pl ac e t o l iv e in.(10)专有名词在下列情况可加t he o(A)海、河、运河的名称：The Tham e s;t he B aham as;(B)复数形的专有名词：The We s t I n d ie s;t he B aham as;(C)船泊的名称：The Qu e e n Mar y;t he Fl y in g Sc ot s m an;t he C om e t;(D)书报、杂志、经典的名称：t he Tim e s;t he C e n t r al D ail y N e w s;t he
19、 Kor an;(E)公共建筑、机关的名称：The Rit z Hot e l;t he Min is t r y of E d u c at ion;(F)国民的总称：t he Fr e n c h;t he Japan e s e;t he C hin e s e;(G)用在姓氏的复数前指其全家人：The C he n s w il l m ov e t o t he c ou n t r y.3.冠词的省略：(1)称呼语之前不加冠词。Wait e r,b r in g m y b il l,pl e as e.(2)家庭称谓如父母兄弟前不加冠词，甚至佣人也都不需加冠词。Fat he r
20、is ou t,b u t Mot he r is at hom e.C ook has m ad e m in c e-pie s f or C hr is t m as.(3)三餐名称前不加冠词。C om e t o d in n e r (b r e akf as t,l u n c h)w it h m e.(4)运动、游戏、颜色、感官的名词前不加冠词。He likes basketball.White is a beautiful color.D o you play bridge?Sight is one of the five senses.(5)表官职、身份或亲属关系的名词当补
21、语，或作同位语时不加冠词。He was elected president.George VI,King of E ngland.(6)School;church;hospital等字，指原有的用途时不加冠词，若指建筑物本身或场所时,则要加冠词。School begins at eight,(school 作抽象名词用)The school stands on the hill,(school 指建筑物)(7)两个相对的名词并用时不加冠词。Arm in arm;day by day;man to man;young and old;副词(四)(Red修饰Blue)1.副词的用法：(1)修饰动词
22、：He works hard.He speaks slowly.(2)修饰形容词：The flower is very beautiful.(3)修饰其他副词:He works very hard.(4)修饰名词：E ven a child(or E ven he)can do it.(5)修饰全句：Probably he will come back.(6)修饰副词片语：He came exactly at two o clock.(7)修饰副词子句：He started soon after we came.2.副词的位置(1)副词修饰形容词、副词(片语或子句)时，通常放在前面。The m
23、ountain is very beautiful.He came long before the appointed time.(2)修饰动词的副词不及物动词+副 词 She speaks well.及物动词+受 词+副 词 She speaks E nglish well.(3)表确定时间或场所的副词，通常放在句首或句末，放在句首时语气较强。She was born in Taipei in 1948.(4)always,never,often,sometimes,usually 等频率副词的位置。(A)在一般动词前：They always say so.(B)有动词be时，在 be动词后
24、：I am always busy.(0 有助动词时，在助动词和本动词间：This job w il l n e v e r b e f in is he d.(5)置于句首修饰全句：For t u n at e l y he s u c c e e d e d in t he e xam in at ion.(6)同类两个以上的副词须依(单位较小者+单位较大者)的顺序排列。He l iv e s at Taic hu n g,in Taiw an,Re pu b l ic of C hin a.(7)有两个以上不同种类的副词修饰语时，其顺序为：地点+状态+次数+时间。She ar r iv
25、e d t he r e s af e l y t he ot he r d ay.3.时间副词(1)Tim e “时候”：可以用作 w he n 的答语，如：l at e (=at a l at e t im e),n ow (=at t hist im e),pr e s e n t l y (=at t he pr e s e n t t im e),t he n (=at t hat t im e),ju s t,n ow ad ay s,t od ay,e t c.I v e ju s t he ar d t hat y ou ar e l e av in g u s.(=at t
26、his v e r y m om e n t)N ow ad ay s,m an y t e e n ag e r s hav e l on g hair.(=at t he pr e s e n t t im e)注：两个以上表时间的副词须依“单位小的时间+单位大的时间”排列。I 11 s e e y ou at n in e on Mon d ay.(2)D u r at ion “期间”:用来作how l on g 的答语，如:m om e n t ar il y,t e m por ar il y,f or m an y w e e ks,l on g,f r om May t il
27、l A u g u s t,e t c.Has he b e e n il l l on g?Y e s,he has b e e n il l s in c e t he e n d of May.He w as aw ay f r om s c hool (f or)f ou r or f iv e w e e ks.(3)F requency 频率”：用来作how often的答语，可分两种:(A)非限定频率：always,usually,often,sometimes,seldom,ever,etc.The sun always rises in the east.My brother
28、 rarely writes to me.(B)限定频率：daily,hourly,monthly,annually,twice,everyday,once,etc.I have been in Singapore once.We have E nglish lessons every other day.注：以上三种时间副词在一起时，其顺序为“期间+频率+时间”。I was there for a day or so every year during my childhood.注：Seldom,rarely,never等有否定意义的频率副词置于句首，要将助动词或be动词放在主词之前。Sel
29、dom do we hear such fine singing from school choirs.4.地方副词:表示where?的副词,也包括“动态方向”的副词，如：below,by,down,elsewhere,far,here,home,in,locally,near,off,opposite,out,around,away,back,outward(s),right,sideway(s),upward(s),etc.(1)地方副词通常置于句尾，加强语气时可放在句首。He lives in a small village.They are not there.(2)两个地放副词并列时
30、，地方确定的副词在后面，地方不确定的副词在前面。The children running around upstairs.(3)两个以上的地方副词须依“小地方+大地方”的顺序排列。Many people eat i n res taurants i n Lond on.5.几个特殊副词的用法：(1)enoug h,too,(A)enoug h 放在所修饰的形容词和副词后面；too放在形容词和副词前面。Sh e s old enoug h to d o s ome w ork.Sh e,s too old to d o any w ork.(B)too.to+动 词”太而不能”,enoug h
31、to+动 词”足够可以“(二s o.th at)I am too poor to af f ord s uch ex travag ance.=I am s o poor th at I cannot af f ord s uch ex travag ance.Y ou are ri ch enoug h to keep a mai d.=Y ou are s o ri ch th at y ou can keep a mai d.(2)very,much,(A)very 修饰形容词，副词；much (或very much)修饰动词。He s poke very caref ully.It i
32、 s much talked about th es e d ay s.(B)Very 修饰原级形容词及副词；much 修饰比较级，最高级的形容词及副词。Your work is very good.This is much better.This is much(by far)the best.(3)already,yet,still,(A)Already用于肯定句，作“已经”解；yet用于否定句，作“还”解，用于疑问句作“已经”解。I already like him.(=1 have by this time come to like him.)He can t drive yet.(=
33、He can,t drive up to this time.)注：Already用在疑问句或否定句时，表惊讶。Have you already seen him?(=That was quick.)(B)Still表动作或状态的持续，作“仍然”解。I still like him.(=I continue to like him.)注：Still放在动词前后，有时句意不同。He is sti11 standing,(continue to stand)He is standing still.(二 standing motionless)(4)only和 also常随句中位置的变动，句意和语
34、气也会改变。Only John phoned Mary today.John phoned only Mary today.Joh n ph oned Mary only tod ay (tod ay only).(5)j us t,merely,purely,s i mply 等字放在所修饰的词语之前；alone则放在其后。Y ou can g et a B g rad e j us t(merely,purely,s i mply)f or th at ans w er.Y ou can g et a B g rad e f or th at ans w er alone.6 .副词应注意
35、的事项：(1)有些字可当形容词又可当副词,例如：early;pas t;h alf;long;s trai g h t;f as t;h ard;qui ck;d eep;s low;pretty;aw f ul;w rong;ri g h t;h i g h;late;h ourly;early;w eekly;etc.W e h ad an early breakf as t.(形容词)W e w ent by a f as t trai n.(形容词)W e h ad breakf as t early.(副词)Don t s peak s o f as t.(副词)(2)above;t
36、h en;af ter;up;d ow n;aw ay;h ome等地方或时间副词亦可作形容词。Th e above s tatement(=th e s tatement w h i ch i s above)(3)有些形容词变为副词，可在字尾加ly,也可以不加，不过在字义上不同。(A)eas y 安 适 地 ；eas i ly 容 易 地 ；Stand eas y!He s not eas i ly s ati s f i ed.(B)clear(=completely 完 全 地 ；clearly 显然地”)The bullet went clear through the door.T
37、he thieves got clearly away.(C)high 高”；highly 很;非 常”The birds are flying high.He was highly praised for his work.(D)Slow和 slowly当副词时同义,但slow比 slowly语气强.I told the driver to go slow(er).D rive slowly round these bends in the road.(E)hard“辛苦地”；hardly“几乎不”He works hard.(=He is a hard worker.)He hardly
38、does anything nowadays.(=He does very little nowadays.)(F)just“刚才；仅 ；justly“公正地”I ve just seen him.He was justly punished.(G)late 迟 ；lately(=recently)“最近地”He went to bed late.I h aven*t s een Mr.Green lately.(H)P retty (=f ai rly,mod erately)“十分，颇 ；pretti ly (=i n a pretty w ay,attracti vely)漂亮地Th e
39、 s i tuati on s eems pretty h opeles s.Sh e w as pretti ly d res s ed.(I)near“接 近 地 ；nearly 几乎Th e ti me f or th e ex ami nati on i s d raw i ng near.I nearly mi s s ed my trai n.注：f ormally 和 f ormerly 是分别由形容词f ormal 正 式 的 ，f ormer 以 前 的 加 ly 形成的副词。比较(五)1.比较分三种：一原级；二比较级；三最高级；2.比较级和最高级的构成：(1)规则变化：(A
40、)单音节和双音节字在字尾加-er和-es t。原级比较级最高级s mall s maller s malles tw i s e w i s er w i s es td ry d ri er d ri es th ot h otter h ottes t后三组注意加-er和-es t的变化。（A）三音节以上的字和部分两音节以上的字，在原级前面加more和 mos t。原级比较级最高级us ef ul more us ef ul mos t us ef uld i li g ent more d i li g ent mos t d i li g ent（2）不规则变化：g ood（好的）和
41、w ell（健康的）的比较级都是better;最高级都是bes t;bad（坏的）和 i ll（生病的）的比较级都是w ors e;最高级都是w ors t;many （很多的）和 much（作形容词是大量的；作副词是非常地）比较级都是more;最高级都是mos t;li ttle（作形容词是小的;作副词是一点地）有两个比较级是li ttle,s maller les s;两最高级是 li ttles t,s malles t leas t;f ar（作副词是远地）的两个比较级是f arth er（更远，表距离），f urth er（更进步，表程度）；两个最高级是f arth es t,f u
42、rth es t;old 的两个比较级是old er（表年龄或新1 日），eld er（表长幼顺序）；两个最高级是old es t,eld es t;late的两个比较级是later（表时间），latter（表顺序）；两个最高级是lates t（最近的）,las t(最后的);3.比较的方式：(1)相等比较：.as +原 级+as.和.as +原 级+名 词+as.;W i lli am i s as poor as Joh n.(=W i lli am s poverty i s equal to Joh n,s.)Sh e h as as much money as I(h ave).(2
43、)劣等比较：.les s +原级+th an.(=not s o or as +原级+as.;)Sh e i s les s caref ul th an h er.=Sh e i s not s o(or as)caref ul as h er.(3)优等比较：.比较级+th an.和.th e+比较级+of th e tw o;He i s more caref ul th an h er.Ji m i s th e more s tupi d of th e tw o boy s.4.最高级的表达方式：(1)优等比较：(最).t he+最高级(+单数名词或o n e)+o f(o r a
44、m o n g)+人或物(复数).t he+最高级(+单数名词或o n e)+in +场所(单数)A gir affe is t he t al l es t o f(o r am o n g)al l an im al s.A gir affe is t he t al l es t in t he an im al k in gd o m.（2）劣等比较：（最不）.the+least+原级（+单数名词或one）+of（or among）+人或物（复数）.the+least+原级(+单数名词或one)+in+场合(单数)Grammar is the least interesting of(
45、or among)all the subjects.Jack is the least diligent boy in his class.(3)其他表示最高级的方式：(A)用原级表示最高级。He is as happy as he can be.=He is happiest.(B)“比较级+than any other+单数名词”表示最高级。This is more difficult than any other book here.=This is the most difficult of all the books here.(0 否定的比较级表示最高级。Nothing can b
46、e simpler than this.=This is the simplest thing of all.(D)叙述用法的最高级形容词。Summer is hottest in July.She was happiest when she was young.1.不用than的比较：(1)than的省略：Never before did he work harder(than now).(2)作限定用法的形容词，常接代名词one.I want a better job.Bring me a smaller one.(3)作叙述用法的形容词.He is better now.It is wa
47、rmer this morning.(4)接 if子句的比较级.You will understand it easier if you consult the dictionary.(5)只作限定用法的形容词比较级，如：inner,outer,upper,former,latter,utter,elder,etc.The plan was an utter failure.My brother will come back from America in the latter part of the year.(6)比较级+and+比较级“越来.越”He became more and mo
48、re eloquent towards the end of his speech.(7)由拉丁文而来的比较级(接t。不接than).He is junior to me.(to 之后接受格)和 He is younger than I.(than 之后接主格)其它的例子如下：senior(=older)0 junior(=younger);superior(=better)inferior(=worse);major(=m o r e)和 m in o r (二 l es s);p r io r (=befo r e)和 p r efer (二 l ik e bet t er);(1)p r
49、 efer +(动)名词+t o +(动)名词二 p r efer t o +原形 r at her t han +原形I p r efer r ead in g t o t al k in g.=I p r efer t o r ead r at her t han t al k.(2)T he+比较级，t he+比较级“越，越”T he m o r e I r ead,t he m o r e in t en s el y in t er es t ed I becam e.T he m o r e he has,t he m o r e he w an t s.第一个t he是关系副词，
50、引导副词子句，修饰第二个t he(指示副词).(红色修饰黑色)T he hap p ier a hu m an bein g is,t he l o n ger he l iv es.在句意明确时，常以省略句的形式出现.T he s o o n er (y o u d o it),t he bet t er (it w il l be).5.含有否定词的比较级：(1)n o l es s t han =as m u ch(o r m an y)as “多达”和 n o t l es s t han =at l eas t “最少”I hav e n o l es s t han (=as m