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1、 6.3Macropragmatics 宏观语用学宏观语用学Speech act theoryThe Cooperative Principle(CP)The politeness Principle(PP)一一.二二.三三.Speech act theory 言语行为理论言语行为理论 1.Illocutionary actsilkju:nri 2.Classification of illocutionary acts 3.Indirect speech acts1.Illocutionary acts(言外行为言外行为)ilkju:nriBasically,they believe tha
2、t language is not only used to inform or to describe things,it is often used todo things,to perform acts.Proposed by A.L.AustinDeveloped by J.R.SearleSearle约翰约翰罗杰罗杰斯斯希尔勒希尔勒For example:If you work in a company where the boss has the overwhelming power,then the boss utterance is more than just a state
3、ment.You are fired.This utterance can be used to perform the act of ending your employment.I hereby name this ship Red Flag.Actions performed via utterances are called speech acts and in English these acts are commonly given more special labels,such as apology,complaint,compliment，invitation,promise
4、 or request.In all these cases above,the uttering of the relevant words itself;without the utterance the action is not done.These are called performative sentences and the verbs used are called performative verbs.I promise to be there at nine oclock.I apologize.It is argued that even non-performativ
5、e sentences are use to perform acts.For instance:In sayingIts such a fine day today.someone may be performing the act of suggesting an outing.an outingSo it is claimed that all sentences,in addition to whatever they mean,perform specific actions or do thingsthrough having specific forces.Austin sugg
6、ests three basic senses in which in saying something one is doing something and three kinds of acts are performed simultaneously.Three kinds of actions:(1)Locutionary act(言内行为言内行为):the act of saying,the literal meaning of the utterance;(2)Illocutionary act(言外行为言外行为):the extra meaning of the utteranc
7、e produced on the basis of its literal meaning;(3)Perlocutionary act(言后行为言后行为):the effect of the utterance on the hearer,depending on specific circumstances.(一)“以言指事”(locution)-说话本身及由此而产生的语义学意义；(二)“以言行事”(illocution)-用话来做事或传递交际意图；(三)“以言成事”(perlocution)-说话后改变世界和产生效果。Its stuffy in here.There isnt enoug
8、h fresh air in here.A request of the hearer to open the window.The hearers opening the window or his refusal to do so.Locutionary actIllocutionary actPerlocutionary actWhat speech act theory is most concerned with is illocutionary acts.It attempts to account for the ways by which speakers can mean m
9、ore than what they say.It also designed to show cohereence in seemingly incoherent conversations.Husband:Thats the phone.Wife:Im in the bathroom.Husband:Okay.A refusal to comply with the requested and issuing a request to her husband to answer the phone instead.2.Classification of illocutionary acts
10、 (1)Representatives (2)Directives (3)Commissives (4)Expressives (5)Declarations(1)Representatives(阐述类阐述类)Those kinds of speech acts that state that the speaker is committed in various ways to the truth of the statement.Statemens of fact,assertions,and descriptions.a.The earth is flat.b.It was a warm
11、 sunny day.c.Chomsky didnt write about music.In using a representative,the speaker makes words fit the world(of belief).(2)Directives（指令类）（指令类）Those kinds of speech acts that the speaker uses to get the hearer to do something.They express what the speaker wants.They are commands,orders,requests,sugg
12、estions,begging and pleading.They can be positive or negative.a.Give me a cup of tea.Make it black.b.Could you lend me a pen,please?c.Dont touch that.In using a directive,the speaker attempts to make the world fit the words(via the hearer).(3)Commissives（承诺类）（承诺类）Those kinds of speech acts that the
13、speaker uses to commit himself to some future action.They express what the speaker intends.They are promises,threats,pledges.They can be performed by the speaker alone,or by the speaker as a member of a group.a.Ill be back.b.Im going to get it right next time.c.We will not do that.In using a commiss
14、ive,the speaker undertakes to make the world fit the words(via the speaker).(4)Expressives（表达类）（表达类）Thoses utterances stating that the speaker expresses an attitude about the situations,They express psychological states and can be statements of pleasure,pain,likes,dislikes,joy,or sorrow.They can be
15、caused by something the speaker does or the hearer does,but they are about the speakers experience.a.Im really sorry!b.Congratulations!c.Oh,yes,great,mmm,ssahh!In using an expressive,the speaker makes words fit the world(of feeling).(5)Declaration（宣告类）宣告类）Those utterances that the speaker uses to ch
16、ange a situation.In the following examples,the speaker has to have a special institutional role,in a special context,in order to perform a declaration appropriately.a.Priest:I now pronounce you husband and wife.b.Referee:You are out!c.Jury Foreman：We find the defendant guilty.In using a declaration,
17、the speaker changes the word via words.a)Jane:Cocos sick.Steve:Ill take her to the vet.b)Mike:Whats the weather like in London?Annie:Its raining.c)Carmen:Youve thrown away the paper.Dave:Im sorry.d)Ed:The garage is a mess.Faye:Clean it up!In each of the following dialogues,decide whether the second
18、speakers utterance is a representative,a commissive,a directive,an expressive or a declarationrepresentativeexpressivedirectivecommissiveIndirect speech acts(间接言语行为间接言语行为)direct speech act:the conventionally expected function.indirect speech act:the extra actual function.间接言语行为理论(theory of indirect
19、speech acts，Searle 1969,1975,1979)是直接言语行为和会话含义的组合理论。Searle 认为，人有时有话不直人有时有话不直接说，是出于礼貌等原因接说，是出于礼貌等原因，比如说 Can you pass me the salt?就比直接说 (I request that you)pass me the salt.来得委婉。Requests are often performed indirectly.Their indirectness has certain characteristics that tend to group requests into the
20、following types:Group1:Sentences concerning the hearers ability to do something.a.Can you pass me the book over?b.Could you type this paper for me?Group2:Sentences concerning the speakers wish or want that the hearer will do something.a.I would like you to write this down.b.I would appreciate it if
21、you could do it for me.c.Id rather you didnt do that any more.d.Id be very much obliged if you would take me there.Group3:Sentences concerning the hearers doing something.a.Would you kindly pick that up for me?b.Wouldnt you turn the TV down a little?Group4:Sentences concerning the the hears desire o
22、r willingness to do something.a.Do you want to return these books for me now?b.Would it be convenient for you to come over on Friday afternoon?c.Would it be too much trouble for you to type the paper for me?Group5:Sentences concerning reasons for doing something.a.You should write to them every now and then.b.Must you make that noise when you are reading?c.Youd better book the tickets two weeks in advance.