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1、本 科 毕 业 设 计（论文）( 2006届)（外 文 翻 译）题 目: 搬运工业机器人转台的设计 分 院: 机械工程系 专业: 机械设计制造及其自动化 班级: 2 姓 名: 学 号: 1 指导老师: 原文Humanoid Robots: A New Kind of ToolIn his 1923 play R.U.R.: Rossums Universal Robots, Karel Capek coined robot as a derivative of the Czech robota (forced labor). Limited to work too tedious or dan
2、gerous for humans, todays robots weld parts on assembly lines, inspect nuclear plants, and explore other planets. Generally, robots are still far from achieving their fictional counterparts intelligence and flexibility.Humanoid robotics labs worldwide are working on creating robots that are one step
3、 closer to science fictions androids. Building a humanlike robot is a formidable engineering task requiring a combination of mechanical, electrical, and software engineering; computer architecture; and real-time control. In 1993, we began a project aimed at constructing a humanoid robot for use in e
4、xploring theories of human intelligence. In addition to the relevant engineering, computer architecture, and real-time-control issues, weve had to address issues particular to integrated systems: What types of sensors should we use, and how should the robot interpret the data? How can the robot act
5、deliberately to achieve a task and remain responsive to the environment? How can the system adapt to changing conditions and learn new tasks? Each humanoid robotics lab must address many of the same motor-control, perception, and machine-learning problems.The principles behind our methodologyThe rea
6、l divergence between groups stems from radically different research agendas and underlying assumptions. At the MIT AI Lab, three basic principles guide our research We design humanoid robots to act autonomously and safely, without human control or supervision, in natural work environments and to int
7、eract with people. We do not design them as solutions for specific robotic needs (as with welding robots on assembly lines). Our goal is to build robots that function in many different real-world environments in essentially the same way. Social robots must be able to detect and understand natural hu
8、man cuesthe low-level social conventions that people understand and use everyday, such as head nods or eye contactso that anyone can interact with them without special training or instruction. They must also be able to employ those conventions to perform an interactive exchange. The necessity of the
9、se abilities influences the robots control-system design and physical embodiment. Robotics offers a unique tool for testing models drawn from developmental psychology and cognitive science. We hope not only to create robots inspired by biological capabilities, but also to help shape and refine our u
10、nderstanding of those capabilities. By applying a theory to a real system, we test the hypotheses and can more easily judge them on their content and coverage.Autonomous robots in a human environmentUnlike industrial robots that operate in a fixed environment on a small range of stimuli, our robots
11、must operate flexibly under various environmental conditions and for a wide range of tasks. Because we require the system to operate without human control, we must address research issues such as behavior selection and attention. Such autonomy often represents a trade-off between performance on part
12、icular tasks and generality in dealing with a broader range of stimuli. However, we believe that building autonomous systems provides robustness and flexibility that task-specific systems can never achieve.Requiring our robots to operate autonomously in a noisy, cluttered, traffic-filled workspace a
13、longside human counterparts forces us to build systems that can cope with natural-environment complexities. Although these environments are not nearly as hostile as those planetary explorers face, they are also not tailored to the robot. In addition to being safe for human interaction and recognizin
14、g and responding to social cues, our robots must be able to learn from human demonstration.The implementation of our robots reflects these research principles. For example, Cog began as a 14-degrees-of-freedom (DOF) upper torso with one arm and a rudimentary visual system. In this first incarnation,
15、 we implemented multimodal behavior systems, such as reaching for a visual target. Now, Cog features two six-DOF arms, a seven-DOF head, three torso joints, and much richer sensory systems. Each eye has one camera with a narrow field of view for high-resolution vision and one with a wide field of vi
16、ew for peripheral vision, giving the robot a binocular, variable-resolution view of its environment. An inertial system lets the robot coordinate motor responses more reliably. Strain gauges measure the output torque on each arm joint, and potentiometers measure position. Two microphones provide aud
17、itory input, and various limit switches, pressure sensors, and thermal sensors provide other proprioceptive inputs.The robot also embodies our principle of safe interaction on two levels. First, we connected the motors on the arms to the joints in series with a torsional spring. In addition to provi
18、ding gearbox protection and eliminating high-frequency collision vibrations, the springs compliance provides a physical measure of safety for people interacting with the arms. Second, a spring law, in series with a low-gain force control loop, causes each joint to behave as if controlled by a low-fr
19、equency spring system (soft springs and large masses). Such control lets the arms move smoothly from posture to posture with a relatively slow command rate, and lets them deflect out of obstacles way instead of dangerously forcing through them, allowing safe and natural interaction. (For discussion
20、of Kismet, another robot optimized for human interaction, see “Social Constraints on Animate Vision,” by Cynthia Breazeal and her colleagues, in this issue.)Interacting socially with humansBecause our robots must exist in a human environment, social interaction is an important facet of our research.
21、 Building social skills into our robots provides not only a natural means of humanmachine interaction but also a mechanism for bootstrapping more complex behavior. Humans serve both as models the robot can emulate and instructors that help shape the robots behavior. Our current work focuses on four
22、social-interaction aspects: an emotional model for regulating social dynamics, shared attention as a means for identifying saliency, acquiring feedback through vocal prosody, and learning through imitation.Regulating social dynamics through an emotional model. One critical component for a socially i
23、ntelligent robot is an emotional model that understands and manipulates its environment. A robot requires two skills to learn from such a model. First is the ability to acquire social inputto understand the relevant clues humans provide about their emotional state that can help it understand any giv
24、en interactions dynamics. Second is the ability to manipulate the environmentto express its own emotional state in such a way that it can affect social-interaction dynamics. For example, if the robot is observing an instructor demonstrating a task, but the instructor is moving too quickly for the ro
25、bot to follow, the robot can display a confused expression. The instructor naturally interprets this display as a signal to slow down. In this way, the robot can influence the instructions rate and quality. Our current architecture incorporates a motivation model that encompasses these exchange type
26、sIdentifying saliency through shared attention. Another important requirement for a robot to participate in social situations is to understand the basics of shared attention as expressed by gaze direction, pointing, and other gestures. One difficulty in enabling a machine to learn from an instructor
27、 is ensuring the machine and instructor both attend to the same object to understand where new information should be applied. In other words, the student must know which scene parts are relevant to the lesson at hand. Human students use various social cues from the instructor for directing their att
28、ention; linguistic determiners (such as “this or “that), gestural cues (such as pointing or eye direction), and postural cues (such as proximity) can all direct attention to specific objects and resolve this problem. We are implementing systems that can recognize the social cues that relate to share
29、d attention and that can respond appropriately based on the social context.Acquiring feedback through speech prosody. Participating in vocal exchange is important for many social interactions. Other robotic auditory systems have focused on recognition of a small hardwired command vocabulary. Our res
30、earch has focused on understanding vocal patterns more fundamentally. We are implementing an auditory system to let our robots recognize vocal affirmation, prohibition, and attentional bids. By doing so, the robot will obtain natural social feedback on which actions it has and has not executed succe
31、ssfully. Prosodic speech patterns (including pitch, tempo, and vocal tone) might be universal; infants have demonstrated the ability to recognize praise, prohibition, and attentional bids even in unfamiliar languages.Learning through imitation. Humans acquire new skills and new goals through imitati
32、on. Imitation can also be a natural mechanism for a robot to acquire new skills and goals. Consider this example:The robot is observing a person opening a glass jar. The person approaches the robot and places the jar on a table near the robot. The person rubs his hands together and then sets himself
33、 to removing the lid from the jar. He grasps the glass jar in one hand and the lid in the other and begins to unscrew the lid by turning it counter-clockwise. While he is opening the jar, he pauses to wipe his brow, and glances at the robot to see what it is doing. He then resumes opening the jar. T
34、he robot then attempts to imitate the action.Although classical machine learning addresses some issues this situation raises, building a system that can learn from this type of interaction requires a focus on additional research questions. Which parts of the action to be imitated are important (such
35、 as turning the lid counter-clockwise), and which arent (such as wiping your brow)? Once the action has been performed, how does the robot evaluate the performance? How can the robot abstract the knowledge gained from this experience and apply it to a similar situation? These questions require knowl
36、edge about not only the physical but also the social environment.Constructing and testing human-intelligence theories In our research, not only do we draw inspiration from biological models for our mechanical designs and software architectures, we also attempt to use our implementations of these mod
37、els to test and validate the original hypotheses. Just as computer simulations of neural nets have been used to explore and refine models from neuroscience, we can use humanoid robots to investigate and validate models from cognitive science and behavioral science. We have used the following four ex
38、amples of biological models in our research.Development of reaching and grasping. Infants pass through a sequence of stages in learning hand-eye coordination. We have implemented a system for reaching to a visual target that follows this biological model. Unlike standard kinematic manipulation techn
39、iques, this system is completely self-trained and uses no fixed model of either the robot or the environment.Similar to the progression observed in infants, we first trained Cog to orient visually to an interesting object. The robot moved its eyes to acquire the target and then oriented its head and
40、 neck to face the target. We then trained the robot to reach for the target by interpolating between a set of postural primitives that mimic the responses of spinal neurons identified in frogs and rats. After a few hours of unsupervised training, the robot executed an effective reach to the visual t
41、arget.Several interesting outcomes resulted from this implementation. From a computer science perspective, the two-step training process was computationally simpler. Rather than attempting to map the visual-stimulus locations two dimensions to the nine DOF necessary to orient and reach for an object
42、, the training focused on learning two simpler mappings that could be chained together to produce the desired behavior. Furthermore, Cog learned the second mapping (between eye position and the postural primitives) without supervision. This was possible because the mapping between stimulus location
43、and eye position provided a reliable error signal. From a biological standpoint, this implementation uncovered a limitation in the postural primitive theory. Although the model described how to interpolate between postures in the initial workspace, no mechanism for extrapolating to postures outside
44、the initial workspace existed.Rhythmic movements. Kiyotoshi Matsuoka describes a model of spinal cord neurons that produce rhythmic motion. We have implemented this model to generate repetitive arm motions, such as turning a crank. Two simulated neurons with mutually inhibitory connections drive eac
45、h arm joint. The oscillators take proprioceptive input from the joint and continuously modulate the equilibrium point of that joints virtual spring. The interaction of the oscillator dynamics at each joint and the arms physical dynamics determines the overall arm motion.This implementation validated
46、 Matsuokas model on various real-world tasks and provided some engineering benefits. First, the oscillators require no kinematic model of the arm or dynamic model of the system. No a priori knowledge was required about either the arm or the environment. Second, the oscillators were able to tune to a
47、 wide task range, such as turning a crank, playing with a Slinky, sawing a wood block, and swinging a pendulum, all without any change in the control system configuration. Third, the system was extremely tolerant to perturbation. Not only could we stop and start it with a very short transient period
48、 (usually less than one cycle), but we could also attach large masses to the arm and the system would quickly compensate for the change. Finally, the input to the oscillators could come from other modalities. One example was using an auditory input that let the robot drum along with a human drummer.Visual search and attention. We have implemented Jeremy Wolfes model of human visual search and attention, combining low-level feature detectors for visual motion, innate perceptual classifiers (such as face detectors), color saliency, and depth segmentation with a motivational and behaviora