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1、Unit 7 Are Animals Smarter Than We Think?What does an elephant see when it looks in the mirror?Itself,apparently.Previously,such self-awareness was thought to belimited to humans,primates and the great celebrities of the world ofanimal intelligence,dolphins.A t first,elephants in studies withmirrors
2、 will explore the mirror as an object.Eventually,they mayrealize they are looking at themselves.They will repeatedly touch amark painted on their heads that they wouldnt see without the mirror.Diana Reiss of Hunter College believes these are compelling signsof self-awareness.Scientists used to belie
3、ve that animals were like machinesprogrammed to react to stimuli.They were not considered capable offeeling or thinking,and certainly not of understanding abstractconcepts.However,any dog owner will disagree.They know,whenthey see the love in their pets eyes,that it has feelings.A dog can betrained
4、to respond to commands and perform useful tasks.It canrecognize different people and make choices about what to eat orwhich path to take.But does this mean that an animal is capable ofthinking and,if so,can it be proved?Our perceptions of animals arefiltered through our own human understanding of th
5、e world and weoften project human feelings and thoughts onto other creatures.One of the first scientists to try to investigate the animal mind wasthe British naturalist Charles Darwin.In his book The Descent ofMan,published in 1871,he questioned whether higher mentalabilities such as self-consciousn
6、ess and memory,were limited tohuman beings.Darwin speculated that human and non-human mindsarent all that different.A nimals,he argued,face the same generalchallenges and have the same basic needs as humans:to find foodand a mate,to navigate through the sky,the woods or the sea.A llthese tasks requi
7、re the ability to problem-solve and to categorize.Birds,for example,need to be able to distinguish colors so theyknow when a fruit is ripe,what is safe to eat and what is not.Knowing the shapes of predators helps them to escape danger.Having a concept of numbers helps them to keep track of their flo
8、ck,and to know which individuals have a mate.A ll these skills require,not just instinct,but cognitive ability,arguesIrene Pepperberg,who has worked on animal intelligence since1977.She studied an A frican grey parrot called A lex from the age of onefor 30 years.Parrots are well-known for their abil
9、ity to imitatespeech and in her experiments;Pepperberg used this talent to findout about A lexs understanding of the world.Her aim was to teachhim to reproduce the sounds of the English language so that shecould then have a dialogue with him.I thought if he learned tocommunicate,I could ask him ques
10、tions about how he sees theworld.Memory,language,self-awareness,emotions and creativity are keyindications of higher mental abilities.Scientists have,bit by bit,uncovered and documented these talents in other species.Pepperbergdiscovered that A lex could count,distinguish shapes,sizes,colorsand mate
11、rials such as wood,wool and metal.Until recently,onlyhigher mammals,such as primates,have been thought capable ofunderstanding concepts of same and different.But parrots,likeprimates,live for a long time in complex societies,so abstractmental ability would seem to be a valuable survival skill for th
12、em,too.Darwin argued that animals minds,like their bodies,have evolvedto suit their environment.He went so far as to suggest that evenworms have some hint of intelligence since he observed themmaking judgments about the kinds of leaves they used to block theirtunnels.Many scientists in the 20th cent
13、ury dismissed such findingsas unreliable,usually influenced by anthropomorphism,in otherwords,judging animals by human attributes.However,the pendulumis now swinging away from thinking of animals as machines withoutintelligence,and back towards Darwins ideas.A wide range ofstudies on animals suggest
14、s that the roots of intelligence are deep,widespread across the animal kingdom and highly changeable.People were surprised to find that chimpanzees and other primateswere smart.They make tools.Orangutans use leaves as rain hats andprotect their hands when climbing spiky trees.Scientists put thisdown
15、 to the fact that primates and humans share a common ancestor.What is surprising them now however,is that intelligence doesntseem to be limited to those species with whom;we have a commonancestor.It appears that evolution can reinvent similar forms ofconsciousness indifferent species;and that to an
16、astonishing degree,this intelligence is not reserved only for higher mammals.One vitalquestion is thrown up by the current research:If all this is true andanimals have feelings and intelligence,should it affect the way wehumans treat them?动物比我们想象的更聪明吗？大象照镜子时到底看到了什么？显然是它自己。以前，人们认为这样的自我意识仅存于人类、灵长类动物以及
17、动物智慧世界的明星一海豚。在这项大象和镜子的研究里，大象起初只把镜子当作物品来把玩。最后，它们可能意识到它们在镜子里看到了自己。它们会反复触碰画在它们头上的印记，这是一些没有镜子就不可能看见的印记。亨特大学的戴安娜雷斯认为，这是自我意识的很有力的说明。过去，科学家认为动物和机器一样，能根据事先编排好的程序对外界的刺激作出反应。还认为它们不具备感受和思考能力，绝对没有理解抽象概念的能力。但是，养狗的人是不会同意这种看法的。他们在宠物狗的眼睛里看到了爱，知道它有情感。狗能通过训练接受指令做有益的事情。它会认人、选择食物、识别道路。但这是否意味着它有思维能力呢？如果有的话，又如何证实呢？我们对动物的
18、认知是经过过滤的，是建立在人类对世界的理解的基础上的，我们经常把人类的情感和思想投射到其它动物身上。最早研究动物心智的科学家之一是英国博物学家查尔斯达尔文。在1871年 出 版 的 人类的起源一书中，他质疑是否只有人类才具有高级思维能力一如自我意识和记忆。达尔文猜测人脑和动物脑没有那么大的差别。他认为，动物和人一样面对相同的常规挑战和相同的基本需求：寻找食物和伴侣，在天空、森林和海洋中旅行时不迷失方向。要完成这些任务，就需要有解决问题和甄别分类的能力。例如鸟类必须有分辨颜色的能力，以确定果实什么时候成熟，什么东西能吃，什么东西不能吃。了解捕食动物的形状能帮助它们避开危险，有数字概念可帮助他们了
19、解本鸟群的情况，了解哪些鸟已有伴侣。从1977年起就从事动物智慧研究的艾琳佩拍伯格认为，所有这些技巧不仅需要本能，还需要认知能力。她研究一只叫“亚历克斯”的非洲灰鹦鹉，从它一岁开始整整研究了 30年。鹦鹉以模仿语言的能力著称；在她的实验里，佩拍伯格利用鹦鹉这方面的才能来了解亚历克斯对世界的理解。她的目标是教会它英语，以便能够和它对话。“我想如果它学会如何交流，我就可以问它是如何看待这个世界的了。”记忆、语言、自我意识、情感和创造性是高智力的关键标志。科学家已经一点一滴地揭示并记录了其他物种在这些方面的才能。佩拍伯格发现亚历克斯不仅能够数数，还能分辨形状、大小、颜色 及 材 料（如木头、羊毛和金
20、属）。直到最近，只有高等哺乳动物，如灵长类，才会被认为具有理解“相同”和“不同”这些概念的能力。但鹦鹉和灵长类一样长期生活在复杂社会里，因此抽象的智力对它们而言似乎也同样是有价值的生存技巧。达尔文认为，动物的心智和它们的身体一样因为要适应环境而进化了。他甚至说：即便是虫子也有一点点智慧，因为他观察到虫子能判断什么样的叶子适合用来堵它们的洞口。许 多2 0世纪的科学家轻视这些发现，认为它们不可靠，这是受了拟人说的影响,即根据人的特征来判断动物。但是，现在舆论的天平已经不再向那些认为动物像机器一样没有智慧的观点倾斜了，而是向达尔文的观点倾斜。大范围的动物研究表明：智慧之根在动物界的分布既深又广，变
21、化多端。人们吃惊地发现黑猩猩及其他灵长类动物都很聪明，它们会制造工具。红毛黑猩猩能用树叶当斗笠挡雨；在爬带刺的树时，它们知道如何保护自己的手。科学家把这种现象归结为灵长类动物和人类拥有共同祖先这一事实。但是，现在让他们吃惊的是智慧似乎并不仅仅体现在与人同祖的物种身上。进化似乎能够在不同物种身上重新创造出相似的意识形式。令人吃惊的是，这种智慧并非高等哺乳动物的专利。目前的研究提出了一个重大的问题：如果这一切都是真的，如果动物具有情感和智力，这会改变人类对待动物的方式吗？Unit 8 Painting as a PastimeA gifted A merican psychologist has
22、said,Worry is a spasm of theemotion;the mind catches hold of something and will not let it go.Its useless to argue with the mind in this condition.The stronger thewill,the more futile the task.One can only gently insinuatesomething else into its convulsive grasp.A nd if this something elseis rightly
23、 chosen,if it is really attended by the illumination ofanother field of interest,gradually,and often quite swiftly,the oldundue grip relaxes and the process of recuperation and repair begins.The cultivation of a hobby and new forms of interest is therefore apolicy of first importance to a public man
24、.But this is not a businessthat can be undertaken in a day or swiftly improvised by a merecommand of the will.The growth of alternative mental interests is along process.The seeds must be carefully chosen;they must fall ongood ground;they must be sedulously tended,if the vivifying fruitsare to be at
25、 hand when needed.To be really happy and really safe,one ought to have at least two orthree hobbies,and they must all be real.It is no use starting late inlife to say:I will take an interest in this or that.Such an attemptonly aggravates the strain of mental effort.A man may acquire greatknowledge o
26、f topics unconnected with his daily work,and yet hardlyget any benefit or relief.It is no use doing what you like;you havegot to like what you do.Broadly speaking,human beings maybedivided into three classes:those who are toiled to death,those whoare worried to death,and those who are bored to death
27、.It is no useoffering the manual laborer,tired out with a hard weeks sweat andeffort,the chance of playing a game of football or baseball onSaturday afternoon.It is no use inviting the politician or theprofessional or businessman,who has been working or worryingabout serious things for six days,to w
28、ork or worry about triflingthings at the weekend.A s for the unfortunate people who can command everything theywant,who can gratify every caprice and lay their hands on almostevery object of desire for them a new pleasure,a newexcitement is only an additional satiation.In vain they rushfrantically r
29、ound from place to place,trying to escape from avengingboredom by mere clatter and motion.For them discipline in oneform or another is the most hopeful path.It may be said that rational,industrious,useful human beings aredivided into two classes:first,those whose work is work and whosepleasure is pl
30、easure;and secondly,those whose work and pleasureare one.Of these the former are the majority.They have theircompensations.The long hours in the office or the factory bring withthem as their reward,not only the means of sustenance,but a keenappetite for pleasure even in its simplest and most modest
31、forms.ButFortunes favored children belong to the second class.Their life is anatural harmony.For them the working hours are never long enough.Each day is a holiday,and ordinary holidays when they come aregrudged as enforced interruptions in an absorbing vocation.Yet toboth classes the need of an alt
32、ernative outlook,of a change ofatmosphere,of a diversion of effort,is essential.Indeed,it may wellbe that those whose work is their pleasure are those who most needthe means of banishing it at intervals from their minds.绘 画 消 遣（节选）一位天才美国心理学家说过：“烦恼是感情的发作；此时大脑缠住了某种东西不肯放手。”在这种情况下，和头脑争论（让它放手）是无用的。愿望越强烈，
33、与之争论就越是徒劳。你只能温和地将另一种东西慢慢灌输到痉挛状态的头脑中。如果（这一东西）选得恰当，而且它真的从另一领域的情趣中受到启迪的话，那么逐渐地，往往也是迅速地，原先不适当的“不肯放手”就会慢慢放松，恢复和补救的过程就会开始。因此，对于公众人物而言，培养业余爱好和新的兴趣才是上策。但这并非一日之功，也不是单凭意志力就能做到的事情。精神情趣的培养是一个长期的过程。要想在需要的时候可随手摘取充满生机的果实，种子就必须精挑细选，必须播种在肥沃的土壤里,还必须辛勤地护理。要想真正快乐，真正安全，一个人至少应有两三种业余爱好，而且必须是实际可行的。到了晚年才开始说：“我会培养对这或对那的兴趣”，这
34、是没有用的。这种愿望只能加剧精神紧张。一个人可能会获得大量与其日常工作无关的知识，却不能从中得到任何益处或宽慰。做你喜欢做的事是没有用的，你要喜欢你做的事。泛而言之，人可以分为三类：极其劳累的人，极其操心的人，极其无聊的人。对于卖了一周力气、流了一周汗水的体力劳动者来说，让他们在星期六下午踢足球或打垒球是不合适的。同样，对于工作了六天、一直为公务操心的政界人士、专业人员或商人来说，在周末再让他们为鸡毛蒜皮的琐事而操心劳累也是无益的。那些能够支配一切、能够肆意妄为、能够染指一切追求目标的人是“不幸的”。对于他们而言，不多一种新的乐趣、多一种新的刺激只是增加一分厌腻而已。他们到处奔乱跑，企图靠喧闹
35、和骚动来摆脱无聊对他们的报复，但这么做是徒劳的。对他们来说，某种形式的纪律约束是最有希望让他们走出 困境、走上正道的。可以这样说，理智的，勤劳的、有用的人可以分为两类：第一类人认为工作是工作，娱乐于是娱乐；第二类人认为工作和娱乐是一回事。这两类人当中，第一类人占大多数。他们是能够得到补偿的。在办公室或工厂里长时间工作给他们带来了报酬，这不仅是谋生的手段，也使他们对寻找快乐充满了渴望，哪怕是最简单、最质朴的快乐。但是，幸运之神偏爱的是第二类人。他们的生活是一种自然的和谐。对他们来说，工作时间永远不会太 长（永远都不够长），每一天都是假日，而当普通节日来到时，他们会感到厌恶，因为这强行打断了他们埋
36、头从事的工作。然而对这两种人来说，换换脑子，改变一下气氛，转移一下注意力都是不可缺少的。其实，把工作当作乐趣的人，很可能是最需要每隔一段时间就把工作放下，让头脑放松的人。Unit 9 Are You the Right Person for the Job?In the old days it was easy.They were going to be the best threeyears of your life,and you knew it.You spent your time chatting lateinto the night with new-found friends i
37、n coffee bars and pubs,playing your heart out in the squash courts and on the cricket field,or strutting across the stage as a leading light of the universitydramatic society.Whatever your interest,university life catered for it.A nd,lets not forget,you would usually manage to keep up with thework t
38、oo,by doing the required reading and dashing off the weeksessay at the last minute.The only thing you didnt find time for wasthinking about what came afterwards,at the end of those threeexciting years.But you didnt need to,because whatever yourchosen career,the companies were all lining up to offer
39、you a job.That was what it was like in the old days as a student in the UK.Butthings have changed.A recent study of Britains major multinationalcompanies reveals that even with a good degree graduates can nolonger walk into the top jobs.Today there are twice as manyuniversities as there were just 30
40、 years ago,and 40 percent of youngpeople now go on to higher education.So with no shortage ofgraduates,a good degree has become vital in the search for a job.Competition is tough,and todays students are spending more timethan ever preparing for those dreaded final exams,or doing low-paidpart-time jo
41、bs to pay off debts.But thats just the problem.In the opinion of managers from morethan 200 British companies,students are spending too much timestudying,or worrying about making ends meet,instead of joiningclubs and acquiring basic skills such as teamwork and makingpresentations.The managers also s
42、aid that they were prepared toleave jobs unfilled rather than appoint graduates who didnt have thenecessary skills to get ahead in the global market.But what can be done about the problem?The solution,themanagers believe,is to include social skills in degree courses;andsome universities are taking t
43、he advice.A t the University ofSouthampton,for example,history students have to do a 12-weekproject frequently related to the local context-working inteams of six.This includes making a presentation,writing a groupthesis,and carrying out a public service,which might involveteaching schoolchildren or
44、 making a radio program about the topic.There can be no doubt that this sort of cooperative approach can helpmany students develop personal skills which will help improve theirprospects in their search for a job.One of the most well-knownpersonality tests used by employers when interviewing candidat
45、es,the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator(MBTI),puts the extrovert/introvert dichotomy at the top of the list of personality traits it triesto analyze.There are no right answers in such tests,but extroverts,it is assumed,are going to be more suited to jobs in which they haveto work in teams or deal with ot
46、her people.Equally interesting in the Southampton project is the conviction thatstudents should be aware of the wider community,and find ways tomake contributions to it.In todays shrinking world,students areincreasingly aware that a university is not an ivory tower of learning,cut off from the real
47、problems of the world,but on the contrary,canitself be an agent for change for a better world.There are numerousways in which students can be volunteersbefore,during,or aftertheir degree courses.With courses making heavy demands onstudents time,as we have seen,a popular option is to take a gap yearb
48、efore or after university.Typically,volunteering might mean helping the sick or elderly,entertaining underprivileged children on holiday camps,teaching ina Third World country or perhaps working on agricultural orenvironmental projects.For students who choose to offer their talents in this way,one s
49、ideeffect is to gain a wealth of experience to be added to the CV,whichwill not go unnoticed by future employers.But a word of warning isin order:You should remember what your priorities are.A s ShaneIrwin,who worked for two years in Papua New Guinea,puts it:Volunteering teaches you valuable career
50、skills,but I dont thinkyou should be looking to bolster your CV through volunteering 一the main reason you should get involved is because you want tohelp.你适合做这个工作吗?过去，大学生活很轻松。那将是你一生中最美好的三年，你知道这一点。你是这样消磨时光的：在咖啡馆和酒吧里与新结交的朋友聊到深夜，在壁球场和板球场上尽情地挥舞球拍，或是作为大学戏剧社的大腕在舞台上昂首阔步。不管你有什么爱好，大学生活都能为你创造条件。而且，别忘了，你的学习还总能跟