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1、语言学第十章第1页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三FOCUSES:vPsycholinguisticsvLanguageacquisition:stagesandtheoriesvLanguagecomprehensionvLanguageproductionvCognitivelinguisticsvImageschemavMetaphorvMetonymy2第2页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三1.WhatisCognition?什么是认知?什么是认知?vMentalprocessesofanindividual,informationprocessing信息加工过程信息加工过
2、程vMentalprocessorfacultyofknowing,includingawareness察觉察觉,perception感知感知,reasoning推理推理,andjudgment判断判断.3第3页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三Threeapproachestothestudyoflgeandcognition:vTheformalapproach形式法形式法:addressesthestructuralpatterns,includingthestudyofmorphological,syntactic,andlexicalstructure.4第4页,共144页,编辑
3、于2022年,星期三vThepsychologicalapproach:looksatlgefromtheperspectiveofgeneralcognitivesystemsrangingfromperception感知感知,memory记忆记忆,attention注意力注意力toreasoning推理推理.PSYCHOLOGICALLINGUISTICS心理语言学心理语言学vTheconceptualapproach:addresseshowlanguagestructures(processes&patterns)conceptualcontent.COGNITIVELINGUISTI
4、CS认知语言学认知语言学5第5页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三2.PsycholinguisticsvThestudyofPsychologicalaspectsoflgevPsychologicalstates心理状态心理状态andmentalactivity思维活动思维活动withtheuseoflge6第6页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三vStructurallinguisticsvCognitivepsychologyvAnthropologyvNeurosciencesRelated fields7第7页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三vLanguageacqu
5、isition(L1/L2)vLanguagecomprehensionvLanguageproductionvLanguagedisordersvLanguageandThoughtvNeurocognitionSix subjects of research8第8页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三2.1LanguageAcquisitionvLgeacquisition:thelearninganddevelopmentofapersonslge.vFLA:thelearningofanativeorfirstlge.vSLA:thelearningofasecondorforeig
6、nlge.9第9页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三Stages:vPre-linguisticstages(3-11months)cooing:3months,kgiubabbling:6months,fricatives,nasals9months,intonationpatterns10-11months,expressemotions10第10页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三vHolophrastic(One-word)stage:objects,actions,motions,routines.11第11页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三Two-wordstage:
7、around18monthsChildutteranceMaturespeakerPurposeWantcookieIwantacookieRequestMoremilkIwantsomemoremilkRequestJoeseeI(Joe)seeyouInformingMycupThisismycupWarningMommychair ThischairbelongstoMWarningBigboyIamabigboyBraggingRedcarThatcarisredNamingThatcarThatisacarNaming12第12页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三Childutt
8、eranceMaturespeakerPurposeNosleepIdontwanttogotosleepRefusalNottiredIamnottiredRefusalWheredoll?Whereisthedoll?QuestionTrucktableThetruckisonthetable InformingDaddyrunDaddyisrunningInformingJoepushI(Joe)pushed(thecat)InformingPushcatIpushedthecarInformingGivecandyGivemethecandyRequest13第13页,共144页,编辑
9、于2022年,星期三vThree-word-utterancestageGivedoggiepaper.Puttruckwindow.Tractorgofloor.14第14页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三FluentgrammaticalconversationstagevEmbedoneconstituentinsideanother:Give doggie paper.Give big doggie paper.vUsemorefunctionwords:missingfunctionwordsandinflectioninthebeginningbutgooduse(90%)b
10、ytheageof3,withafullrangeofsentencetypes.vAllpartsoflgeareacquiredbeforethechildturns4.15第15页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三LanguageacquisitiontheoriesvReinforcementtheory强化论强化论:stimulus-responsetheory(Bloomfield,Skinner)16第16页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三vInnatenesstheory内在论内在论:childrenarebornwithlgeacquisitionsystem,lg
11、edevelopmentmodelconsistsof2parts:lgeinformationandassessmentprocess.17第17页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三vCognitivetheory认知论:认知论:childrenacquirethelgethroughassimilationandadaptationandlearnfromtheenvironmentthroughinteractionwiththeenvironment.18第18页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三2.2LanguagecomprehensionvAprocessforustog
12、etfamiliarwiththerealword.vMentallexicon:fromapsychologicalpointofview,westoreagreatdealofinfaboutthepropertiesofwords,retrievablewhenunderstandinglge.Wecaninstinctivelyconnecttheknownitemsstoredinourmindtotheunknownonesandaccesstomoreinfinprocessingandcomprehendinglge.19第19页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三e.g.,
13、wemayusemorphologicalrulestodecomposeacomplexwordlikerewritable thefirstfewtimesweencounteritandafterseveralexposureswemaystoreandaccessitasaunitorword.Itmeansthatfrequencyofexposuredeterminesourabilitytorecallstoredinstances.20第20页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三vConnectionism联结主义联结主义:readersusethesamesystemofl
14、inksbetweenspellingunitsandsoundunitstogeneratethepronunciationsofwrittenwordsliketove andtoaccessthepronunciationsoffamiliarwordslikestove,orwordsthatareexceptionstothesepatterns,likelove.vSimilarityandfrequencyplayimportantrolesinprocessingandcomprehendinglge,withthenovelitemsbeingprocessedbasedon
15、theirsimilaritytotheknownones.21第21页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三vAninitialstepinunderstandinganymessagevHowdowegoaboutrecognizingwords?vAssoonaspeoplehearspeech,theystartnarrowingdownthepossiblewordsthattheymaybehearing.Awordisidentifiedassoonasthereisonlyonepossibilityleft.speakWordrecognition22第22页,共144页,编
16、辑于2022年,星期三vCohorttheory(集群理论集群理论):Marslen-Wilson&Welsh(1978)Thefirstfewphonemesofaspokenwordactivateasetofwordcandidatesthatareconsistentwiththeinput.23第23页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三vIt hypothesizes that auditory word recognition begins with the formation of a group of words at the perception of the initi
17、al sound and proceeds sound by sound with the cohort of words decreasing as more sounds are perceived.24第24页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三v交股模型:是交股模型:是Marslen-Wilson提出来的,它包括两个阶段。提出来的,它包括两个阶段。在词辨认的第一个阶段里,一个词的声学在词辨认的第一个阶段里,一个词的声学/语音信息激活了语音信息激活了记忆中和它相近的词,所以如果这个词是记忆中和它相近的词,所以如果这个词是“drive”,所有,所有以以d开始的词,如开始的词,如“dive
18、,drink,date,dunk”等,都会被激等,都会被激活。这些激活的词构成一个活。这些激活的词构成一个“股股”;这些交股的词是在一个目;这些交股的词是在一个目标词的声学信息的基础上提取的,并没有受到其他层面的分析标词的声学信息的基础上提取的,并没有受到其他层面的分析所影响。一个交股结构产生后,词辨认的第二个阶段就开始了。所影响。一个交股结构产生后,词辨认的第二个阶段就开始了。在第二阶段里,所有可能的信息都会影响目标词的选择,这些在第二阶段里,所有可能的信息都会影响目标词的选择,这些交互作用的信息资源都起到排除那些和交股不相似的的词的作交互作用的信息资源都起到排除那些和交股不相似的的词的作用
19、。例如进一步的声学用。例如进一步的声学/语音信息可能排除一些交股的词,如语音信息可能排除一些交股的词,如“date”和和“dunk”,而高层次的信息源也可能产生,把别而高层次的信息源也可能产生,把别的语义和句法上不合适的词,如的语义和句法上不合适的词,如“dive”和和“drink”,加,加以排除。最后才辨认到目标词。以排除。最后才辨认到目标词。(桂诗春桂诗春)25第25页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三26第26页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三vFactorsinvolvedinwordrecognition:Frequencyeffect(频率效应,词频效应)频率效应,词频效
20、应):Oneofthemostimportantfactorsthataffectswordrecognitionishowfrequentlythewordisusedinagivendiscourseorcontext.FrequencyeffectdescribestheadditionaleasewithwhichawordisaccessedduetoitsmorefrequentusageintheL.27第27页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三RECENCYEFFECTS(近期效应近期效应,近现率)近现率):Peoplerecognizeawordfasterwhenthe
21、yhavejusthearditorreaditthanwhentheyhavenotrecentlyencounteredit.Recencyeffectsdescribetheadditionaleasewithwhichawordisaccessedduetoitsrepeatedoccurrenceinthediscourseorcontext.例如在奥运会期间一些体育项目成为例如在奥运会期间一些体育项目成为报章杂志和人们交谈的热点,成了高频词,辨报章杂志和人们交谈的热点,成了高频词,辨认的阈限因而就降低。但是奥运会后,它们又认的阈限因而就降低。但是奥运会后,它们又慢慢降温,辨认的阈限
22、又升高。所以近现效应慢慢降温,辨认的阈限又升高。所以近现效应实际上是动态的频率效应。实际上是动态的频率效应。28第28页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三AnotherfactorthatisinvolvedinwordrecognitionisCONTEXT.Peoplerecognizeawordmorereadilywhentheprecedingwordsprovideanappropriatecontextforit.e.g.This is the aorta主动脉主动脉.The heart surgeon carefully cut into the wall of the r
23、ight aorta.29第29页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三语境可以促进词的辨认,解决词的歧义。语境可以促进词的辨认,解决词的歧义。Thecarturnedright.vOnemechanismthathasbeenproposedtoaccountforthiskindofcontexteffectisaSEMANTICASSOCIATIONNETWORK(语义关联网络语义关联网络).vItrepresentstherelationshipbetweenvarioussemanticallyrelatedwords.Wordrecognitionisthoughttobefast
24、erwhenothermembersoftheassociationnetworkareprovidedinthediscourse.v辨认有语义联系的词比无意义联系的词要快。辨认有语义联系的词比无意义联系的词要快。vbutter-bread,nurse-doctor等等30第30页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三LexicalambiguityvHowareambiguouswordsunderstood?Twotheories:v1)All themeaningsassociatedwiththewordareaccessedv2)Onlyone meaningisaccessedi
25、nitially.31第31页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三vAreyouengaged?vMyfrienddrovemetothebank.vPleasegivemeacamel.32第32页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三Theclerk(entering):Areyouengaged?Augustus:Whatbusinessisthatofyours?However,ifyouwilltakethetroubletoreadthesocietypapersforthisweek,youwillseethatIamengagedtotheHonourableLucyPoph
26、am,youngestdaughterof.Theclerk:ThatisntwhatImean.Canyouseeafemale?Augustus:Ofcourse,Icanseeafemaleaseasilyasamale.DoyousupposeIamblind?(GeorgeBernardShaw:Augustus Does His Bit)33第33页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三Anexperiment:vWhenpeopleareaskedtofinishasentence,theytakelongerwhenthefragmenttobefinishedcontains
27、anambiguouswordthanwhentheambiguouswordisreplacedbyanunambiguousterm.e.g.After taking the right turn at the intersection After taking the left turn at the intersectionvThisdelaysuggeststhatallmeaningsofambiguouswordsareaccessedandthattimehastobetakentodecideamongthem.34第34页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三vOthere
28、xperimentssuggestthatundersomecircumstances,onlyonemeaningisinitiallyaccessed.vThefrequencyandcontexteffectshavebeenshowntobeimportanthere.vFirst,ifoneofthemeaningsismuchmorefrequentthantheother,peopletendtoassumethatthewordhasthemorefrequentmeaning.ChairvThesemanticcontexteffectalsoplaysasignifican
29、tpartindecidingwhichmeaningisthemostappropriate.Bug(spy,spiders and roaches)35第35页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三ComprehensionofsentencesvOnceawordhasbeenidentified,itisusedtoconstructasyntacticstructure.Insomecasesthisisquitestraightforward.The jealous woman went away.vHowever,therearecomplicationsduetotheambi
30、guityofindividualwordsandtothedifferentpossiblewaysthatwordscanbefitintophrases.vSometimesthereisnowaytodeterminewhichstructureandmeaningasentencehas.36第36页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三Syntactic ambiguityvDifferentpossiblewaysinwhichwordscanbefitintophrases.The cop saw the spy with the binoculars.ThePPwith th
31、e binocularsisambiguous.Itcaneitherbeacomplementoftheverbsee orbepartofthenounphrase.vSomeambiguitiesareduetotheambiguouscategoryofsomeofthewordsinthesentence.the desert trains 37第37页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三vJohnpaintedthecarinthegarage.38第38页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三vMaylikesthevaseonthecupboardwhichshebought
32、yesterday.vThestudentswilldiscusstheirplantoholdadancingpartyintheclassroom.vIknowSimonbetterthanyou.vTellmeifyouhavetime.39第39页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三vMybrotherwasntreadingallthetime.vThechairmanappointedMr.Brownanassistant.vThescholarwrotelongthesisandbooks.vFlyingplanescanbedangerous.40第40页,共144页,编辑于
33、2022年,星期三GardenpathsentencevThehorseracedpastthebarnfell.vThemanwhohuntsducksout奇妙地抽出奇妙地抽出时间时间onweekends.vThecottonclothingisusuallymadeofgrowsinMississippi.vFatpeopleeataccumulates.41第41页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三vAsentenceinwhichthecomprehenderassumesaparticularmeaningofawordorphrasebutdiscoverslaterthat
34、theassumptionwasincorrect,forcingthecomprehendertobebacktrackandreinterpretthesentence.42第42页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三vagrammaticallycorrectsentencethatstartsinsuchawaythatareadersmostlikelyinterpretationisanincorrectone,luringhiminitiallyintoanimproperparsethatthenturnsouttobeadeadend.GPSsareusedinpsycho
35、linguisticstoillustratethat,whilereading,humanbeingsprocesslgeonewordatatime.Thegardenpathisareferencetothesayingtobeleddownthegardenpath,meaningtobemisled.43第43页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三vThemanpushedthroughthedoorfell.v大多数听者在语言处理过程的瞬间会倾向于大多数听者在语言处理过程的瞬间会倾向于将将Themanpushedthroughthedoor理解理解为为NP+V+PP的一个句子结构
36、。只有当听到动的一个句子结构。只有当听到动词词fell时,才折回头对语言输入重新进行处理。时,才折回头对语言输入重新进行处理。这种现象被很形象地称之为这种现象被很形象地称之为“花园路径现象花园路径现象”,就像在花园中走错了道,折回头再寻路,就像在花园中走错了道,折回头再寻路径。一般认为,这类歧义现象会对语言的处径。一般认为,这类歧义现象会对语言的处理过程造成较大的困难。理过程造成较大的困难。44第44页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三vAnimportantquestioninsentenceprocessingishowpeopledecidewhichstructureanambig
37、uoussentencehas.vPeopleeitherconsiderallpossibilitiesanddecidewhichisthebest,orelsetheyusesomestrategytodecidewhichstructuretoconsiderfirst.vSeveralsuggestionshavebeenmadeabouthowpeopledecidewhichanalysistotryfirst.vOneguessisthatthereisastrongtendencytobuildaslittlestructureaspossible.45第45页,共144页,
38、编辑于2022年,星期三vMINIMALATTACHMENTTHEORY(最少接最少接触理论触理论):Peoplearemostlikelytochoosethesimplest.Theideaisthatpeopleinitiallyconstructthesimplestsyntacticstructurewheninterpretingthestructureofsentences.46第46页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三ComprehensionoftextvSentencescomeintextsanddiscourses,andtheentiretextordiscour
39、seisrelevanttothemessagesconveyed.vTextisthenetofpropositions命题命题thatmakeupthesemanticinterpretationsofindividualsentences.47第47页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三vReadersabstractthemainthreadsofadiscourseandinfermissingconnections,constrainedbylimitationsofshort-termmemoryandguidedbyhowargumentsoverlapacrosspropo
40、sitionsandbylinguisticcuessignaledbythetext.读者受短期读者受短期记忆的限制,在文本命题中重叠论元和语记忆的限制,在文本命题中重叠论元和语言线索的引导下抽象出语篇的主要思路并言线索的引导下抽象出语篇的主要思路并推断出潜在的联系。推断出潜在的联系。48第48页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三DiscourseinterpretationvResonancemodel共振模式共振模式:informationinlong-termmemoryisautomaticallyactivatedbythepresenceofmaterialthatappar
41、entlybearsaroughsemanticrelationtoit.vSchemataanddrawinginferencesvSchema图式图式:apre-existingknowledgestructureinmemorytypicallyinvolvingthenormalexpectedpatternsofthings.49第49页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三RESTAURANTSchema:Entering,ordering,eatingandexiting.EnteringScene:Thecustomerentersarestaurant,looksforata
42、ble,decideswheretosit,walkstothetable50第50页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三1.Johnwentintoarestaurant.Heaskedthewaitressforcoqauvin酒闷仔鸡酒闷仔鸡.Heateit,paidthebillandleft.(perfectlyunderstandable)2.Johnwentintoarestaurant.Hesawawaitress.Hegotupandwenthome.(doesnotseemtomakesense)51第51页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三3.Apartmentfo
43、rrent.$500.4.IstoppedtogetsomegroceriesbuttherewerentanybasketsleftsobythetimeIarrivedatthecheck-outcounterImusthavelookedlikeajugglerhavingabadday.52第52页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三2.3LanguageproductionvTheabilitytoproducewordsisacoreingredientoftheabilitytoproducelargerutterances.Singlewordaccesshasbeenand
44、stillisacentralresearchtopic.vAccesstowords词的生成词的生成Conceptualization:whattoexpressWordselection:acompetitiveprocessMorpho-phonologicalencoding:targetwords53第53页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三vGenerationofsentencesConceptualpreparation:decidingwhattosayaglobalplanisneededWordretrievalandapplicationofsyntactickno
45、wledgevProcessesofsentencegenerationFunctionalplanning:assigninggrammaticalfunctionsPositionalencoding:gettingintopositionsforeachunit54第54页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三vWrittenlanguageproductionSimilartospokenlanguage.Orthographicforminsteadofphonologicalform.However,phonologyplaysanimportantroleinthisproces
46、s.vWritershavemoretimeavailableforconceptualpreparationandplanning.55第55页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三3.CognitiveLinguisticsCognitivelinguistics:vAnewlyestablishedapproachtothestudyoflgevItisthescientificstudyoftherelationbetweenthewaywecommunicateandthewaywethink.vItisanapproachtolgethatisbasedonourexperienc
47、eoftheworldandthewayweperceiveandconceptualizeit.56第56页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三3.1Construal识解(方法)识解(方法)vConstrual:theabilitytoconceiveandportraythesamesituationindifferentways.57第57页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三vConstrualoperation识解操作识解操作:conceptualizingprocessesusedinlgeprocessbyhumanbeings.Theunderlyingpsycholog
48、icalprocessesandresourcesemployedintheinterpretationoflinguisticexpressions.58第58页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三1)Attention/salience(注意注意突显突显)vWeactivatethemostrelevantconceptsmorethanconceptsthatareirrelevanttowhatwearethinkingabout.a.Wedrovealongtheroad.b.Sheranacrosstheroad.c.Theworkersdugthroughtheroad.在知觉
49、中,我们把注意力集中在感知到在知觉中,我们把注意力集中在感知到的情景部分。马路被概念化为一条线的情景部分。马路被概念化为一条线(一维),一个平面(二维),一个(一维),一个平面(二维),一个立体(三维)立体(三维)59第59页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三va.Hecleanedthewindow.(玻璃)(玻璃)vb.Heopenedthewindow.(窗扇)(窗扇)va.Ivebrokenthewindow.(我)(我)vb.Astonehasbrokenthewindow.(石头)(石头)60第60页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三2)Judgment/Compariso
50、n判断判断比较比较vWecannotattendtoallfacetsofasceneatthesametime.Wecannotpayattentiontoeverything.Instead,wefocusoneventsofparticularsalience.61第61页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三vFigure-ground(图形(图形-背景)背景)62第62页,共144页,编辑于2022年,星期三vFigure-groundThegroundseemstobeplacedbehindthefigureextendinginthebackground.Thefigureis