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1、Senserelations语义关系Sense relations 语义关系Sense relations are the relations held between words within the vocabulary.1.synonymy 同义关系2.antonymy反义关系3.hyponymy下义关系4.homonymy同形同音异义关系5.定义，分类，比较6.5.polysemy一词多义typesofsynonymytotal/absolute/perfect synonymspartial synonyms（部分同义词）Synonymstotal/absolute/perfect
2、synonyms:(完全同完全同义词义词)are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects,i.e.both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning include.highly specialized vocabulary e.g.Scarlet-fever-scarlatina in medicinemalnutrition and undernourishmentWord building-word formationComposition-compoundingSynon
3、ymypartial synonyms（部分同义词）/relative相对refer to items which are close enough in their meaning to allow a choice to be made between them in some contexts without affecting the meaning of the sentence as a whole.(the importance of“context”)Lu(p335)Synonymypartial synonyms（部分同义词）（部分同义词）examples:able,capa
4、ble,nearly,almost announce,declaremore examples:phrases and idiomsFinallyat length Immediatelyat onceDepresslet downRequirecall for Synonymymore examples:phrases and idioms over head and ears in up to the neck in in a thousand and one ways by hook or by crook to die,to pass away,to kick the bucket死死
5、(中性中性)，逝世，逝世(褒义褒义)，蹬腿了蹬腿了(俚语俚语)1.sources of synonymy BorrowingWords of native origin form many couplets and triplets with those from other languages,e.g.Native foreign room chamber foe enemy begin commence buy purchase bodily corporal heaven sky 1.sources of synonymy BorrowingWords of native origin
6、form many couplets and triplets with those from other languages,e.g.Native French Latin ask question interrogate rise mount ascend fast firm secure fire flame conflagration fear terror trepidation time age epoch .Features:native words:colloquial,intimate French words:formal Latin or Greek words:more
7、 formal,frozen1.sources of synonymy Dialects and regional EnglishAm E Brt E help servant sidewalk pavement railroad railway elevator lift druggist chemist gasoline petrol installment plan hire-purchase system佣人佣人人行道人行道铁路铁路电梯电梯药品商药品商汽油汽油分期付款分期付款1.sources of synonymy figurative and euphemistic use of
8、wordse.g.Drunk-elevated(euph),lie-distort the fact(euph)coincidence with idomatic expressionse.g.wingain the upper handhesitate-be in two mindshelplend one a hand Discrimination of synonymsGenerally speaking,there is no difference between absolute synonyms whereas relative synonyms always differ in
9、one way or another.1.difference in range and intensity of meaning2.difference in stylistic features3.difference in emotive colouring 4.difference in application Discrimination of synonyms1.difference in range and intensity of meaning I did not comprehend his exposition or his arguments,although I un
10、derstood the language,and the grammatical import of each sentence.Understand is used in a much more extended sense than comprehend.work vs.toilDiscrimination of synonyms2.Difference in stylistic featuresPoliceman,constable,bobby,copPoliceman(Brt.&Am.E)and constable are neutral.Bobby is colloquial us
11、ed only in British English.Cop is slangy.Discrimination of synonyms3.Difference in emotive colouring Many words may be synonymous in conceptual meaning but differ in emotive values.e.g.result vs.consequenceLook at that lovely little boy.Look at that small boy.Look at that tiny boy.Discrimination of
12、synonyms4.Difference in application EmptyVacant SeatChair apartment BoxStreetRoom some interesting expressions汉语中有“差点儿”，“差不点儿”；“好容易”，“好不容易”；“好繁华”，“好不繁华”英语中有“valuable”and“invaluable”“flammable”and“inflammable”“shameful”and“shameless”“heritable”and“inheritable”“agoodscare”and“abadscare”“afatchance”and
13、“aslimchance”“quitealot”and“quiteafew”Confusable words容易混淆的词Predictv.语言predicatev论断Masterfula专横的masterlya熟练的Alternatea交替的alternativeaFatefulfatalInformern告密者informant提供消息者Intense强烈的intensiveObservancen遵守observation观察Confusable words容易混淆的词doubt,suspect“怀疑，疑心”I_he was suffering from peptic ulcer.The d
14、octor_he was sufferingObject,oppose反对They all _to my proposal.The African people strongly_imperialist intervention in their internal affairs.Antonymy反义关系Types of antonyms Feature of antonymsThe Use of AntonymsAntonymy 反义关系反义关系Antonymy deals with semantic opposition.反义关系研究的是语义上的对立。What are antonyms?A
15、ntonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.反义词可被定义为意义上对立的词。Types of antonymsMorphologically,antonyms can be divided into root antonyms(词根反义词)and derivative antonyms（派生反义词）.P340词根反义词词根反义词：clearvague,longshort,updown,whiteblack派生反义词派生反义词:code-decode,appeardisappear,usefuluseless,pre
16、warpostwarTypes of antonymsSemantically,antonyms can be divided into three types:ComplementaryContraryConverses(1)Complementaries互补反义词 Complementaries are forms of antonyms which truly represent oppositeness of meaning.互补反义词是真正反映意义对立的反义词形式。binary antonyms二元反义词nongradableExamples in the textbook:Adj.
17、:dead alive,present absent,male female,true false,Noun:boy girl,man womanV.pass-fail;hit-missFeatures of complementaries 互补反义词的特点(1)They are so opposed to each other that they are mutually exclusive and admit no possibility between them.The assertion of one is the denial of the other or vice versa.(
18、2)Another distinctive feature of this category is that such antonyms are nongradable.-张维友(2)Contraries相对反义词gradable antonymsContraries are best envisaged in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.old,middle-aged,younghot,_,cold beautiful,_,ugly Very big/big/quite/big/medium-sized/qui
19、te small/small/tinywarm,coolgood-looking,plainSuch words also show the feature of gradability,that is,superlative degree or comparative degree,even some adverbs can be added into the two poles to indicate the words are gradable.eg.Younger,youngest,very young,relatively young(2)Contraries 相对反义词相对反义词A
20、ntonyms of this kind are characteristic ofsemantic polarity.Theseantonymsformpartofa scale of values between two poles and canaccommodateamiddlegroundbelongingneithertoonepolenortotheother.这种反义词的特点是语义二极性。这些反义词形成了处于两极之间的一支等值尺，并可以提供不属于两端的中间地带。(2)Contraries 相对反义词相对反义词(3)Converses关系反义词Converses consist
21、of relational opposites such as parentchild,husbandwife,predecessorsuccessor,employeremployee.The pairs of words indicate such a reciprocal social relationship that one of them cannot be used without suggesting the other.a.Nouns:husband-wife;student-teacher;doctor-patient;b.Verbs:buy-sell;teach-lear
22、n;give-take;rent-let;save-waste;win-losec.Prepositions:above-below;in front of-behind;Note天地heavenandearth夫妻manandwife因果causeandeffect来去comeandgo远近farandnear黑白blackandwhite厚薄thickandthinNote1.fire and water 2.heat and cold3.eat and drink4.right and left5.rich and poor6.old and new7.heavy and light8.
23、sooner or later 水火水火寒暑寒暑饮食饮食左右左右贫富贫富新旧新旧轻重轻重迟早迟早TheUseofAntonyms反义词的使用(1)Antonym have various practical uses and have long proved helpful and valuable in defining the meanings of a given word.反义词有各种实际用途，在解释词义方面早就被证明很有用处、很有价值。fresh bread,fresh air,fresh flowers,fresh lookstale bread,stuffy air,faded
24、flowers,tired look The Use of Antonyms 反义词的使用(2)Antonyms are useful in enabling us to express economically the opposite of a particular thought,often for the sake of contrast.反义词能使我们简洁地表达一特定思想的反面，常常是为了形成对比。here and there,friend or foe,first and last 总的来说rain or shine,无论如何 thick and thin 赴汤蹈火high and
25、 low到处，各地give and take 互相迁就，忍让TheUseofAntonyms反义词的使用(3)Antonymsareoftenusedtoformantithesistoachieveemphasisbyputtingcontrastingideastogether.反义词常用来构成对偶句，以便将对立的思想放在一起取得强调的效果Art is long,life is short.Easy come，easy go.More hate,less speed.United we stand,divided we fall.Hope for the best and prepare
26、for the worst.TheUseofAntonyms反义词的使用(4)Manygreatwritersarefondofusingantonymstoservetheirstylisticpurpose.许多大作家喜欢利用反义词以达到其风格上的目标。It was the best of times,it was the worst of times,it was the age of wisdom,it was the age of foolishness,it was the epoch of belief,it was the age of incredulity,it was t
27、he season of light,it was the epoch of darkness,it was the spring of hope,it was the winter of despairs,we have everything in before us,we had nothing before us,we were all going direct to Heaven,we were all going direct to other ways -A Tale of Two Stories Homonymy同形同音异义关系Homonyms?Origin of homonym
28、sTypes of homonyms Homonymy同形同音异义关系Homonyms are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.同形同音异义词是意义不同、而发音与拼写皆相同或只有拼写或只有发音相同的词。Originsofhomonyms见课本见课本Splitofpolysemy多义词的词义分化Quean/queen,flour-古法语flor花，拉丁语flos
29、“麦子的最精细部分”、flowerConvergingsounddevelopment音变的汇合/外来词的介入I/eye,bear/bear,race/raceShortening词语缩略的结果Popular/pop,rockandroll/rockBernardShaw:ghotiTypesofhomonymsPerfect/absolute homonyms完全同形同音异义词Homophones同音异义词Homographs同形异义词 the largest number and most common(1)PerfecthomonymsPerfect homonyms also know
30、n as absolute homonyms are words identical both in sound and spellingbank,bear,datebank n the edge of the river,lake,etcbank n.an establishment for money businessbear n a large heavy animalbear v to put up with date n a kind of fruit date n a boy or girl friend(2)Homographs同形异义词tear,sow.minute,lead,
31、bow,wind重音转换：produce,refuse,desert,object(3)Homophones同音异义词sew/sow,dear/deer,meet/meat/mete边界，awe/oar/or/ore,cent/scent/sent,right/write/rite/wright，pair/pear/pare,to/two/too,tale/tailRhetoric features of homonymsHomonyms are often employed to create puns for desired effect of humor or irony for sty
32、listic purposes.Example 1:-Youre not eating your fish,the waitress said to him.anything wrong with it?-long time no sea,the man replied.Polysemy一词多义关系1.Polysemy2.Two approaches to polysemy3.processes of developmentPolysemy一词多义关系Polysemy means that one single word has two or more senses at the same t
33、ime.它是指一个单独的词同时有两个或更多的意义。The bulk of English words are polysemic;one meaning words are rare and are mainly scientific terms such as hydrogen,molecule,and so on.1.Two approaches to polysemyJDiachronic approach历时研究方法 It is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of
34、 one and same word.一词多义是同一个词的语义结构历史发展的结果。The first meaning is the primary meaning原始意义.Later meanings are called derivative meanings派生意义.P89 JSynchronic approach共时研究方法 Synchronically,polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a historical period of time.从共时的角度看，在同一个
35、历史时期，同一个词可以拥有许多不同的意义。The basic meaning of a word is called the central meaning 中心意义.The derivative meanings are secondary in comparison.1.Two approaches to polysemy2.processes of development1)Radiation辐射型 2)Concatenation连锁型 3)the combination of the two 1)Radiation辐射型Semantically,radiation is the pro
36、cess which the primary or central meaning stands at the center while secondary meanings radiate from it in every direction like rays.从语义上讲，辐射型是这样一种过程，在此过程中，本义（也称中心意义）处在中心位置，次要意义从此处象光线一样朝各个方向辐射。1)Radiation辐射型Head P90（见课本）（见课本）All the meanings are independent of one another,but can all be traced back
37、to the central meaning.这些次要词义之间相互独立，但均可追溯到中心义。2)Concatenation连锁型Concatenation is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is no connection between the sense that is finally developed and the primary meaning.连锁型是一种语义过
38、程，在此过程中，一个词的意义象链条一样，通过连续的改变，逐渐从本义移开，直至最后发展出来的意义和本义没有了任何关系。例1：board：木板餐桌会议桌董事会例2：candidate：穿白袍的人身着白袍申请职位的人候选人3)radiation+concatenationBE A C F G Dradiation+concatenation综合性：词义的变化是很复杂的，并不都按单一的方式进行。在通常的情况下，词义的演变是两种方式交叉结合进行的。由只有一个原始意义的单义词通过多种词义演变过程发展为多义词的过程叫做词义的“繁衍”（proliferation）exampleface:在古英语里的意思是“脸
39、脸”。在放射型的演变过程中，通过词义的扩大获得了“人的外表、外人的外表、外观、态度观、态度”等意思；通过词义的缩小获得了“表表情情”的意思；通过隐喻使词义转变为“尊严”。在连锁型的演变过程中，由“人的外表”转移为“任何东西的外表、表面”。多义词的词义就是这样一步步地繁衍出来的。radiation+concatenationones wholeattitudefaceanexpressiononthefacereputationoneswholeappearancethesurfaceofanything词源拼写发音意义完全同形异义词不同相同相同不同同音异义词不同不同相同不同同形异音异义词不同相
40、同不同不同同源对似词相同不同不同不同多义词相同相同相同不同HyponymyfoodmeatvegetablefruitbeefmuttonceleryspinachpeachpineappleHyponymyFrom the above diagram,we can see the word food is a general term,linguistically called a superordinate term,i.e.,it includes all the other terms listed underneath it.Meat,vegetable,and fruit are
41、specific terms and they are all hyponyms/subordinate terms of food.The relationship between specific words and general words are called hyponymy.humanbabyHyponymycontainerpotbarrelboxtinbagcaskkegcasesackcratepouchpursesuitcasebriefcaseThe sense relation of hyponymy is very helpful in both receptive
42、 and productive processing of language.In reading comprehension,cohesion by hyponymy is an important key.e.g.There was a fine rocking-chair that his father used to sit in,a desk where he wrote letters,a nest of small tables and dark,imposing bookcase,now all this furniture was to be sold,and with it
43、 his own pastnotesHand是由palm，finger，knuckle三部分组成。他们之间是整体与部分的关系而非上下义关系。又如 plant由 root，stem,leaf,flower,bud,shoot 组成。LexicologyLecture 11semantic changechanges of meaningChangesinwordmeaningCauses of change Mechanism/process of change Types of changeTypes of semantic change1.extension（词义的扩大扩大）/general
44、ization (词义的一般化)2.narrowing（词义的缩小缩小）/specialization（词义的特殊化）/3.elevation (词义的升格升格)4.degeneration/degradation(词义的降格降格)5.transference of meaning(词义的转移转移)1.generalization/extensionExtension of meaning is the name given to the widening of meaning,which some words undergo.It is a process by which a word w
45、hich originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized or has extended to cover a broader and less definite concept.Exampleslady:“the female host in a house”“a female aristocrat”“women who are educated”“a polite way to refer to any kind of woman”“the synonym to woman”女主人贵族太太有教养的女主人任何女人
46、saleslady,cleaning lady,ladies room,a lady novelist,lady traffic wardens,lady guests1.generalization/extensionFrom specific to general 从特指到类指From concrete to abstract从具体到抽象From technical terms to general words从术语到一般词汇From proper nouns to common nouns从专有名词到普通名词ExamplesFrom specific to general 从特指到类指
47、bird（幼鸟-鸟）journal（日报-一切期刊）From concrete to abstract从具体到抽象grasp用手抓住-掌握，领会pain罚款-惩罚-痛苦ExamplesFrom technical terms to general words从术语到一般词汇catalyst化学术语催化剂促进因素，导火索allergic对过敏对有一种说不出的厌恶From proper nouns to common nouns从专有名词到普通名词SandwichBoycott;Champagne;P72汉语中的例子又如：“得更求好女”（西门豹治邺）“好”，原来专指女子相貌好看，不涉及品德，现代汉
48、语中“好”可泛指一切美好的性质，对人、事、物都可以修饰限制。2.specialization/narrowingnarrowing is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense.2.specialization/narrowingFrom general to specific 从类指到特指From abstract to concrete从抽象到具体From general words to technical terms 从一般词汇到术语From common no
49、uns to proper nouns 从从普通普通名词到专有名词from general to specific从泛指到特指从泛指到特指meat (各种食物,eg.sweetmeat甜食,greenmeat蔬菜,to be meat and drink to somebody flesh meat肉食)From abstract to concrete从抽象到具体从抽象到具体room（空间，地方具体的有限空间，房间）eg.Thereisstillroomforimprovement.Givemesomeroom.Examples:从普通名词到专有名词从普通名词到专有名词cape（海角）海角）
50、-the Cape（the Cape of Good Hope）mesomeroom.从一般词语到术语memory记忆记忆-存储器存储器Moreexamples:wordOld meaning Specialized meaning diseasediscomfortillnesspoisondrinkPoisonous drinkwifewomanMarried womanaccidenteventUnfortunate eventgirlYoung people of either sexFemale young person3.elevationelevation refers to t