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1、Chapter 1 Introduction语言学的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.问题： How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language?- It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of lingui
2、stic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.What the linguist has to do “first, then, but”：to observe and collect language facts and generalizations are made about them.to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.to check the hypotheses thus formed
3、repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.（普通语言学）问题：What arc the major branches of linguistics? What docs each of them study? f phonetics （语音学）一the study of soundsphonology （音位学）-*study how sounds are put
4、together and used to convey meaningmorphology （形态学）Study the way in which symbols or morphemes are arranged and combined to form words.syntax （句法学） Ihe study of rules of forming sentences-semantics （语义学）一the study of meaning-* pragmatics （语用学）-* the context of language useSociolinguistics（社会语言学）：The
5、 studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics （语言心理学）：Relate the study of language to psychology Applied linguistics （应用语言学）：In a narrow sense it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language
6、 teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Some important distinctions in linguistics:prescriptive （规定性）/descriptive （描写性）synchronic （共时）/diachronic （历时）speech （口语）/writing （书面语）langue （语言）/parole （言语）（the Swiss linguist F. de SaussureCourse inGeneral Linguistics）competence （
7、语言能力）/performance （语言应用）（the American linguist N. Chomsky）traditional grammar （传统语法）/modern linguistics （现代语言学）structural syntax结构主义学派（索绪尔）transformational syntax生成学派（乔姆斯基）（本书重点学习）functional syntax而能学派（哈里德）3 范畴 Categories/ Noun (N)/ Verb (V)Adjective (A) Preposition (P)/ Determiner (Det)限定词/成分/ Degr
8、ee words (Deg)程度 词Qualifier (Qual)修饰语Auxiliary (Aux)助词 Conjunction (Con)连词Syntactic categories句法范 畴的定义：The fact that words in all human languages can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes.注：The word-level categories are the most central categories to the syntactic study.Major
9、 lexical categories (主要词汇范 畴)play a very important role in sentence formation and they are often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built.Minor lexical categories (次要词汇范 畴)/ Meaning 意义Three criteria to determine a words category v- inflection 屈折变化、Distribution 分布? It is misleading to a
10、ssume that a words category can be told straightforward from its meaning:nouns do not concretely reveal their entities.some words tend to be verbs but they can also be used as nouns.words with the same or similar meanings sometimes belong to different word categories.Phrases are syntactic units that
11、 are built around a certain word category.IThe phrase is built around the word category.The word category determines the category of phrase.4要点生成学派认为句子由短语构成。短语一单词一词素f音节一短语层面单词层面5 the most commonly recognized and discussed phrasal categories:NP: noun phraseVP: verb phraseAP: adjective phrasePP: prepo
12、sitional phrase6 the elements of phrases that are formed of more than one word:head/termed head 中心语/中心成分：The word around which a phrase is formed specifiers 标志语/标志成分：The words on the left side of the heads complements 补语/补足语/补足成分：The words on the right side of the heads7 phrase structure rule 短语结构规则
13、定义： A special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that makes up a phrase.The phrase structure rule for NP, VP, AP, PPNP-(Det) N (PP) .VP-*(Qual) V (NP) .AP一(Deg)A(PP) .PP-*(Deg)P(NP) .XP rule公式一： XP f (specifier) X (complement)X9Theory (X标杆理论)X，: The intermediate
14、 level formed by the head and the complement between word level and phrase level.X Theory: (specifier) X9 (word)X=X (complement)Coordination rule (并列 规则)Coordinate structures (并歹1J 结构)Coordination (并列，并列关系)Four important properties of coordination：there is no limit on the number of coordinated categ
15、ories that can appear prior to the conjunction.a category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.coordinated categories must be of the same type.the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.公式二：X-X * Con X (其中”代表无限的意思)
16、8 Phrase elementsSpecifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles.semantically, they help make more precise the meaning of the head.syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary.In English specifiers occur at the left boundary of their respective phrases.Complements are themselves ph
17、rase and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Complements are attached to the right of the head in English.Subcategorization (次范畴化)卜中心成分决定补充成分这种现象。中心成分决定补充成分时，决定着是否需要补充成分，需要什么样的补充成分, 以及补充成分的位置问题。The XP Rule (revised)公式三： XPf (specifie
18、r) X (complement*)Complementizers (Cs):补语化成分Words which introduce the sentence complementComplement clause:补语从句The sentence introduced by the complementizerComplement phrase(CP):补语短语Matrix clause 主句Modifiers修饰成分，修饰语The Expanded XP rule:|公式四：XP(Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (MoJj9 sentencesThe S rule:
19、S-NPVP/4种短语种（句子为屈折短语）10 transformations (转换规则)/ Yes-no questionSyntactic movement- wh-question、Passive voiceTransformation/Inversion (彳到置)定义：a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.Inversion (倒置)：Move Infl lo he left of ihe subject NPAll Ss occur within larger CP
20、s, whether they are embedded or not.Inversion (revised):Move Infl lo C|If we assume that there can be only one element in each position in a tree structure, complementizers and auxiliaries arc mutually exclusive.Trace:用“e”表示Head movement 中心语移 位：The movement of a word from the head position in one ph
21、rase into the head position in anotherInversion- 一般疑问句+显性助词Do insertion:Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl positionTwo levels of syntactic structureDeep structure (D-structure):The structure formed by the XP rule in accordance with the heads subcategorization propertiesSurface structure (S-s
22、tructure):The structure corresponds to the final syntactic form of the sentence which resultsfrom appropriate tansfonnationsThe organization of the syntactic component of the grammarThe XP Rule_LDee structure (subcategorization restricts choice of comclements)Transfonnations_LSurface structure11 Wh
23、Movement:Move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentenceWh Movement (revised)：Move a wh phrase to the specifier position under CPMove a and constraints on transformations there is a general rule for all the movement rules. This general rule is referred to as Move a ,where “alpha” is a cover term
24、 for any element that can be moved from one place to another. only certain categories are targeted by movement rules, and there are limits on how far elements can be moved.inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position.no element may be removed from a coordinate structure.Ch
25、apter 5 Semantics 语义学1语义学定义：Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.2The naming theory(ancient Greek scholar Plato)A-BThe words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for.Limitations:This theory seems applicable to nouns only.Abstract notions can not be define
26、d by this theory.3The conceptualist view(概念论)There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.Semantic triangle/triangle of significance (Ogden and Richards) 1923 年提出Symbol/form .referent.referent4Contextualism 语境论(J. R. FirthBritish linguist)Malinowski (Polish anthropologist)
27、Wittgenstein (German philosopher)The contextualist view of meaning is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.Two kinds of context:The situational contextThe linguistic context/co-textThe main components of a particular spatiotemporal situat
28、ion:The placeThe timeThe speakerThe hearerThe actionsThe various objects and eventsThe linguistic context is concerned with the probability of a words co-occurrence or collocation with another word, which forms part of the “meaning” of the word, and also with the part of text that precedes and follo
29、ws a particular utterance.5 Behaviorism 行为主义论(American Bloomfield)This theory is linked with psychological interest.刺激反应理论：JillJackSrsR6 lexical meaningSense and referenceSense定义:It is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de
30、-contextualized. (Dictionary compilers are interested in)每个单词都有它的意义（sense）Reference 定义：It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.不是所有单词都有语义(reference)Major sense rela
31、tions:synonymy 同义关系 synonymsdialectal synonyms 方言同义词(British English and American English)Girllass/lassie (Scottish dialect)Liquorwhiskey (Irish dialect)Autumn Lift Luggage Lorry PetrolFlatWindscreen TorchA fall elevator baggage truck gasoline apartment windshield flashlightstylistic synonymsWords h
32、aving the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of formalityE.g. old man/daddy/dad/father/male parentStart/begin/commcnceKid/child/offspringKick the bucket/pop off7die/pass away/deceasesynonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluation meaningCollaborator / accomplice collocational synonyms 短
33、语同义词 Accuse. .of/charge. with/rebuke. .for Rotten tomatoes/addled eggs/rancid bacon/sour milksemanticaHy different synonyms语义上不同的同义词Amaze/astoundDrift/floatpolysemy 一词多义homonymy同音异义identical in sound（homophones）: Rain/reign night/knight piece/peace leak/leekidentical in spelling（homographs）: Bow/bow
34、 tear/tear lead/leadidentical in both sound and spelling（complete homonyms）: Fast/fast scale/scalehyponymy卜义关系It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.superordinate上坐标词hyponyms下义词co-hyponyms共同下义词E.g. Flower: rose/tulip/carnation/lily/mornin
35、g gloryAnimal: dog/cat/tigcr/lion/wolf7elcphant/fox/bcarFurniture: bed/table/desk/dresser/wardrobe/setteeantonymy反义关系gradable antonyms等级反义词complementary antonyms互补反义词（不能共存，非此即彼）regional opposites应向反义关系（相反的两个极端但可共存）sense relations between sentencesX is synonymous with Y.（X 真，Y 真；X 假，Y 假）X is inconsis
36、tent with Y.（X 真，Y 假；X 假，Y 真）X entails Y.（X真，Y 一定真；X假，Y可真可假）X presupposes Y.（X 真，Y 一定真；X 假，Y 仍为真）X is a contradiction. （X 永远假）X is semantically anomalous.语义破格句7 analysis of meaningOcomponential analysisa way to analyze lexical meaning（成分分析）Semantic features 语义特征：The word man comprises the features o
37、f +HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALEpredication analysis-a way to analyze sentence meaning（述谓结构分析）The meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up the meanings of all its constituent words.There are two aspects to sentence meaningGrammatical meaning: grammatical well-formednessThe grammatica
38、lity of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.Semantic meaning:Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions(选择限制)(constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.) 注意同生成学派次范畴化进行对比:Predication analysis:proposed
39、by the British linguist G. Leech.Predication: it is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of argument(s)(变元)and predicate(谓词)E.g. E.g. TOM(SMOKE)KID, APPLE(LIKE)(BE HOT)(SNOW)Argument(s)(变元淀义：It is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with a nomina
40、l element in a sentence.Predicate(谓词)定义：It is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.Classification of the predication according to the number of arguments contained in a predication:two-place predication one-place predication no-place
41、predicationPragmatics 语用学Origin 起源：1938, American philosopher Charles MorrisFoundation of the Theory of SiensSemiotics:符号学 a science of signs3 branches: syntax/semantics/pragmaticsV Pragmatics 定义：It is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.As the pr
42、ocess of communication is essentially a process of conveying and understanding meaning in a certain context, it can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study.Two major traditions in the study of pragmatics:the Anglo-American tradition:Lay much emphasis on the study of specific language phenomenath
43、e European continental tradition:It does not identify pragmatics with a specific unit of analysis, but takes pragmatics to be a general cognitive, social, and cultural perspectives at the use of language.J Pragmatics VS. SemanticsWhat essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in
44、the study of meaning the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.Five concepts:五个概念整理J Context:First noted by British linguist John Firth in the 19
45、30sIt is essential to the pragmatic study of languageIt is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.Various components of shared knowledge have been identified.Context determines the speakers use of language and also the hearers interpretation of what
46、 is said to him.Various components of shared knowledge:Knowledge of the language they useKnowledge of what has been said before(属于 linguistic context)Knowledge about the world in generalKnowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking placeKnowledge about each other
47、J kentince meaning:和进行比较The meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication, (abstract/decontextualized)(sentenceA sentence is a grammatical concept.J meaning:Concrete/context-dependent问题：in what basic ways does modern linguis
48、tics differ from traditional grammar? linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written, modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.问题：Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?In modern linguistics, a synchronic （不考虑历史演进的，限于一时