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1、Lecture 2:Argumentation Definition Argumentation is the type of writing in which writers try to encourage readers to accept their point of view on a controversial issue.To argue means to provide reasons for or against something,especially clearly and in proper order.When you are for or against somet
2、hing and intend to make your point of view understood and accepted,you write argumentative essays.A piece of argumentative written work expresses the writers own idea on a subject instead of merely assembling facts.Exposition vs.Argumentation vThe purpose of exposition is to inform;the purpose of ar
3、gumentation,on the other hand,is to convince.While an expository paper makes known something and explains it to make the reader understand,an argumentative essay tries to make the reader agree with its point of view and support it,to persuade him to change his mind or behavior,and to approve a polic
4、y or a course of action that it proposes.Speeches on polices,editorials of newspapers,articles on political or theoretical questions,and various proposals are often argumentative.vArgumentation frequently makes use of the other three types of writing description,narration,and above all exposition,fo
5、r argumentation and exposition are very closely related argumentation is actually exposition with the additional purpose of convincing or persuading.What it involves What it aims at Exposition 1.Presenting a point of view2.Explaining,clarifying,and illustrating the point of view Getting readers to u
6、nderstand the point of viewArgumentation 1.Assuming controversy2.Presenting a point of view3.Explaining,clarifying,and illustrating the point of view4.Supplying proof for the point of view5.Refuting opposing viewpoints 1.Convincing readers that the point of view is sound2.Encouraging readers to acce
7、pt the point of view,and/or3.Encouraging readers to take action What type of writing should we write judging from the following titles?vExamination Harmful or Useful?AvMy Views on Examinations EvWhich Weighs More School Brand or Major?AvWhy I Came to College EvShould Class Attendance Be Required?AvL
8、aid-off Workers Have to Face Reality EvInternet a Coin of Two Sides EvInternet the Indispensable of Our Life EvShould Euthanasia Be Legalized?A How to write a good argumentation vAlthough they can take different shapes,argumentative essays have certain basic features in common.If you wish to write a
9、 good argumentative essay,you should try your best to meet the following requirements:v(1)A debatable point v In organizing an argument well,you should first give a well-defined theme,or clearly state your point of view of the issue in the opening paragraph.It is imperative that the paper should hav
10、e a debatable point,that is,something which can be viewed from more than one angle and is therefore open to dispute.Generally speaking,the following are not good themes.v1)Mere statement of facts.v “Chinese doctors use acupuncture anesthesia to perform certain operations”is a fact that cannot be deb
11、ated.But if it is changed into“Acupuncture anesthesia should replace conventional anesthesia in all operations”,it becomes debatable.v2)Statements of personal preferencev “Ba Jin is my favorite author”expresses personal preference which does not lead to dispute.But a statement like“Ba Jin is the gre
12、atest Chinese writer of the 20th century”is disputable and sufficient evidence should be provided.v3)Viewpoints that are generally accepted or can be easily verifiedv It is universally known that“noise pollution is harmful to peoples health”,but it is not generally accepted that“noise pollution is t
13、he most harmful of all environmental pollution”.The former viewpoint can be proved,but the later is arguable.v(2)Sufficient evidence vIn the body of the essay,you must provide sufficient evidence,including reasons,facts,statistics,opinions of reliable authorities,etc.to support or prove your point o
14、f view or proposition that is stated or hinted in the opening paragraph.Since the point of your paper is not a fact,a statement of personal taste,or a viewpoint universally accepted,you will have to provide sufficient evidence to convince the reader.Sufficient evidence includes common knowledge;spec
15、ific examples;hard,not soft,evidence,or facts,not opinions,unless the opinions are expert and authoritative;statistics;and quotations from authorities.Valid evidence is that which is clearly and directly connected with the point to be proved.v(3)Good logicvIt is obvious that good logic is even more
16、important to argumentation than to any other types of writing.All the facts and reasons that are given as evidence should be logically connected with the conclusion and with each other.Any fallacy in logic or wrong step in reasoning would leave the reader in doubt about the whole argument.vThere are
17、 generally two ways of reasoning:v1)Inductive reasoning 归纳vInductive reasoning is the more common way.When you use inductive,you start with facts and proceed from facts to a general conclusion.In other words,you move from specific examples to a general statement.v2)Deductive reasoning 演绎v The proces
18、s is just the opposite of inductive reasoning it moves from a general statement to a specific conclusion.It works on the model of syllogism（三段论法）a three-part argument in which there are two statements,known as the major premise and the minor premise,and a conclusion.vHere is an example of a syllogis
19、m:vAll human beings make mistakes.vX is a human being.vTherefore,X makes mistakes.vFrom the above example we can see that the major premise must be an accepted generalization,and the minor,a factual example of that generalization.If A and B are true,C the conclusion is bound to be true.vYou must be
20、very careful about your premises,especially your major premise.Such statements as“all students love to study”and“women are more imaginative than men”are not generally accepted,and therefore cannot be used as major premises.v(4)Clear logic vA typical argumentative essay consists of three parts:an int
21、roduction which identifies the issue to be discussed and explains the importance of such a discussion;a body which presents the evidence;and a conclusion in which the proposition,if it is stated at the beginning,is reaffirmed.vIn the body,it is advisable that you devote the first one or two paragrap
22、hs to a consideration of the other side of the case before stating and amplifying your own views.vThen in each paragraph that follows,you should arrangevA.from the least to the most important,vB.from the most familiar to the least familiarvC.from the easiest to accept or comprehend to the most diffi
23、cult.v(5)Good use of the other three types of writing description,narration,and especially the various methods of exposition.v(6)An honest and friendly attitude vTo argue is not to quarrel.The force of an argument does not come from abuse,sarcasm,exaggeration,or fierce attacks,but from solid evidenc
24、e,logical reasoning,and careful analysis.A domineering or hostile tone could only raise doubts about your good faith and impair the credibility of your argument,whereas an honest and friendly attitude will help win the trust of your readers.v Take care that you neither overstate or understate,and av
25、oid overuse of such words and phrases as“perhaps”,“maybe”,“sometimes”,“most often”,“nearly always,”“I think“,“in my opinion”,which invariably weaken the force of your argument.vEssential elements of argumentation vThe issue/the claim/the support /the refutation vThe issue-a controversy,a problem,or
26、an idea about which people disagree and hold different points of view.vEx.Identify and check the statements that can be developed as an argument and explain why the others cant.vThe United Nations is an international organization of countries created to promote world peace and cooperation.v The gene
27、ration gap between parents and their teenage children is widening.vSmoking should be banned in workplace.vThe greenhouse effect has significantly affected the environment.v“Home”means different things to different people.vMore effective measures should be adopted to crack down on（处罚、制裁）cyber crime.v
28、There should be stricter laws against fishing in city canals.vNelson Mandela is a universally respected old man.vPeople have different reasons for wanting to change jobs.vCompetent teachers shouldnt be forced to retire at age 60.vA better way of assessing students progress should be adopted.vParis a
29、nd London both put in bids for the 2012 Olympics.vThe claim-the point of view the writer tries to prove about the issue,usually the writers view on the issue.vTips on how to make a claim:vBe sure that the claim what you are trying to prove is clearly stated,preferably at the beginning of your paper.
30、vWhen necessary,define terms that may cause confusion before making a claim.vQualify a claim of fact,when necessary,with a word such as generally,usually,probably,or as a rule,that limits the claim,e.g.Generally,college graduates earn more than high school graduates who didnt go to college.vIn the c
31、ase of claims of value,adhere to the values you defend.vState a claim of policy with a word such as should or must.vThe support-ideas and information intended to convince readers that the claim is sound or believable.The three common types of support are reasons,evidence and emotional appeal.vTypes
32、of support:vReasons:general statements that back up a claim,explaining why a viewpoint on an issue is reasonable or correct.Reasons should be logical(i.e.making sense)reasonable(i.e.fair)vEvidence:what writers use to support or verify reasons.Evidence should be vrelevant(i.e.appropriate to the case
33、in hand)vsufficient(i.e.as much as you need to verify a reason)vEmotional appeal:which evoke the needs or values that readers care deeply about.vappealing to needsvappealing to values Types of evidence exemplified:vClaim:Reading aloud to preschool and kindergarten children improves their chances of
34、success in school.vFacts(i.e.a statement that is true or can be verified),e.g.First-grade children who were read to as preschoolers learn to read earlier than children who were not read to.vStatistics(i.e.facts in figures),e.g.A 1998 study demonstrated that reading aloud to children produced a 16 pe
35、rcent improvement in the childrens ability to recognize words used in a story.vExpert opinion,e.g.Dr.Maria Morealle,a child psychologist,urges parents to read two or three childrens stories to their children daily.vExamples,e.g.Stories about unfamiliar places or activities increase a childs vocabula
36、ry.For example,reading a story about a farm to a child who lives in a city apartment will acquaint the child with such new terms as barn,plow,and tractor.vObservation from personal experience,e.g.When I read to my three-year-old son,I notice that he tries to repeat words.vThe refutation-which recogn
37、izes/acknowledges and argues against opposing viewpoints.vGuiding principle:finding a weakness in the opponents argument.vby casting doubt on the opponents reasons;vby questioning the accuracy,relevancy,and sufficiency of the opponents evidence(facts,examples,statistics and expert testimony)vStructu
38、re of the refutation:vBriefly acknowledge the opposing views.vThen respond and point out why it/they is/are wrong.Overall structure of an argumentation vIntroduction:vIssue;Background information;Definition of termsvClaim:Thesis statement vBody:reasons and evidence;Emotional appeals;Refutation vConc
39、lusion:Restatement of claim;Final appeal;Urge to take action Methods of Development vAn argumentative essay always makes use of the other three types of writing,especially the various method of exposition.In an essay,the writer often uses some methods to add the force of persuasion.The following are
40、 some common methods used in argumentation:vExemplification 举例说明vDeductive Method 推理法vInductive Method 归纳法vCause and Effect 因果vAnalogy 类推，类比vComparison and ContrastvQuotationvReduction to Absurdity Sample Essays vSample 1.On Student Lovers Living Together v According to official statistics,the numbe
41、r of college student lovers living together off campus in Beijing has increased by four times between 1997 and 2001.This is undeniably true of many other places in China.Although many students do not strongly object to it,I dont think it is advisable for college student lovers to live together away
42、from campus.v Some lovers say that living together can help them study better,for it can help them get rid of the interference of other students.This is actually not true.When living away from campus,the lovers will always think of each other rather than the teachers assignment,and other unavoidable
43、 family chores such as cooking and washing will also take much time away that might have been spent on study./Besides,many courses now require group work or cooperation.If they stay away from other classmates,how can they study these courses well?v Some lovers say that living together can relieve th
44、eir loneliness and pressure,but it is not really the best choice.On the one hand,the real reason for their loneliness is that they are not focusing their mind on study.Study,the most important task for university students,can prove to be fascinating if you really focus on it./On the other hand,even
45、if their loneliness is real,there are many better ways to deal with it./For instance,they can find friends to take part in sports or other entertaining activities.By staying away from other classmates,living together can be a source of rather than solution to loneliness.v Other lovers argue that the
46、y mean to get married after graduation,and this experience can help them test each other to see if they are suitable for married life.But this mentality does not hold water.The two lovers may really love each other,but living together can actually spoil a good relationship,because it enters into wea
47、kness rather strength,doubt rather than conviction./A follow-up study shows that few couples living together really end in marriage.vIn a word,those student lovers cannot find enough reasons to justify their choice.What they can offer all represent self-deception or misconception（错误想法）.Although univ
48、ersities are not allowed to forbid students to live off campus,they can still find more effective ways to convince this lost group of disadvantages,and improve teaching and after-class activities to attract them back to campus.vQuestions:v1.Whats the writers argument?v2.How does the writer put forwa
49、rd his claim?v3.In which part of the argument does the writer identify the opposing view?v4.How does the writer refute the opposing point of view?v5.How does the composition end?vSample 2:Should University Students Go in for Business?v There are two opposite views on university students trying their
50、 hands at business.One is that doing business helps to adapt better to the society after graduation,while the other says it might occupy too much of the students time and energy which in turn has a negative impact on their academic study.In my opinion,as long as we can successfully strike a balance