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1、Halliday and Systemic-Functional GrammarGao LeiMichael Alexander Kirkwood Halliday has developed ideas stemming from Firths theories in the London School.He is probably the most important representative of the Systemic-Functional School.Systemic-Functional Grammar has two components:Systemic Grammar
2、 and Functional Grammar.Systemic GrammarSystemic grammar aims to explain the internal relations in language as a SYSTEM NETWORK,or MEANING POTENTIAL.And this network consists of subsystems from which language users make choices.The notion of system is made a central explanatory principle,the whole o
3、f language being conceived as a“system of systems”.Halliday defines system as a system of potentials,a range of alternatives.Systemic GrammarpersonFirst personSecond personThird personnumbersingularpluraltensepastpresentfuture当从有关系统中一一进行选择之后（如人当从有关系统中一一进行选择之后（如人称、数、及物性、语气、时态等），则可称、数、及物性、语气、时态等），则可生成
4、句子结构。生成句子结构。Systemic GrammarThe axis of chainSurface aspects of grammar,such as sentence structures,linguistic units,and their ranks(sentence,clause,g r o u p,w o r d,a n d morpheme)The axis of choiceMeaning aspects of grammarchoice(paradigmatic)Chain(syntagmatic)On a general level,there is the Chai
5、n System and the Choice SystemThe relation between systemic grammar and functional grammarThe system network in Systemic Grammar chiefly describes three components of function,or three metafunctions (ideational,interpersonal,and textual).Each of them is a complex system consisting of other systems,a
6、nd choices are simultaneously made from the three metafunctions.Functional GrammarHalliday defines a functional grammar as“essentially a natural grammar,in the sense that everything in it can be explained”.Halliday interprets language development from a functional point of view and formulates a func
7、tional theory of language.the ideationalthe interpersonalthe textual functionThree metafunctionsFunctional GrammarThe ideational function is to convey new information,to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer.The ideational function mainly consists of“transitivity”and“voice”.The interpe
8、rsonal function embodies all uses of language to express social and personal relations.The textual function refers to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of se
9、ntences.TransitivityTransitivity is a grammatical system.I t“specifies the different types of process that are recognized in the language,and the structures by which they are expressed”.The basic semantic framework for the representation of process consists of three components(1)the process itself,(
10、2)participants in the process,and(3)circumstances associated with the process.ProcessIn English,we make choices between different types of process,participants,circumstances,roles,and members.They are known collectively as the transitivity choices.We first divided the choices into six kinds:Transiti
11、vityMaterial process(John kicked the ball)Mental process(John likes Mary)Relational Process(John is on the sofa)Behavioural process(John laughed)Verbal process(John said it is cold in the room)Existential process(There is a cat on the sofa)Process1.Material processes:Processes of doingMaterial proce
12、sses are processes of doing.Such a process is expressed by an action verb(e.g.beat、break、kick),an actor(logical subject)and the goal of the action(logical direct object,usually a noun or a pronoun).Actor and Goal correspond to Agent and Patient.For example:My brother broke the window.(Actor-Process-
13、Goal)The girl smiles.(Actor-Process)Process2.Mental Processes:Processes of sensingA mental process consists of two participants:Senser and Phenomenon.The senser is the conscious being that is feeling,thinking,or seeing.The phenomenon is that which is“sensed”felt,thought,seen.The category of mental p
14、rocess consists of three principal subtypes(1)perception(seeing,hearing,etc),(2)affection(liking,fearing,etc),and(3)cognition(thinking,knowing,etc)e.g.Mary liked the gift.(Senser-Process-Phenomenon)The gift pleased Mary.(Phenomenon-Process-Senser)Process3.Relational Processes:Processes of BeingRelat
15、ional processes can be classified into two types:the Attributive and the Identifying.The former expresses what attributes a certain object has,or what type it belongs to.The latter expresses the identical properties of two entities.These two relations can be further classified into the Intensive(is
16、a),Circumstantial(is at a),and Possessive(has a).Process3.Relational Processes:Processes of BeingAttributive mode(Carrier-Process-Attribute):(1)Mary is wise.(intensive)(2)The meeting is on a Tuesday.(circumstantial)(3)Peter has a piano.(possessive)Identifying mode(Identified-Process-Identifier):(4)T
17、om is the leader.(intensive)(5)Tomorrow is the tenth.(circumstantial)(6)The piano is Peters.(possessive)Process3.Relational Processes:Processes of Being Mode typeattributiveidentifying(1)Intensive(2)Circumstantial(3)posessiveSara is wise.The fair is on a Tuesday.Peter has a piano.Tom is the leader;t
18、he leader is Tom.Tomorrow is the 10th;the 10th is tomorrow.The piano is Peters;Peters is the piano.Process3.Relational Processes:Processes of Beingparticipantreversibleattributiveonly one(carrier)YesidentifyingtwoNoTom is the leader.The leader is Tom.Mary is wise.*Wise is Mary.Process3.Relational Pr
19、ocesses:Processes of BeingHalliday points out that in any identifying clause,there is a Token and a Value.These are always related with the identifier and the identified.For example:e.g.John is our monitor.Identified Process IdentifiedToken ValueProcess3.Relational Processes:Processes of BeingHallid
20、ay also points out that if the subject is Token,then the clause is in the active voice.Or if the subject is Value,then the clause is in the passive voice.Examples are:e.g.The daughter resembles her mother.The mother is resembled by the daughter.Process4.Verbal Processes:Processes of SayingVerbal pro
21、cesses are those of exchanging information.Commonly used verbs are“say”,“tell”,“talk”,“praise”,“describe”,etc.In this type of processes the participant are the Sayer,Receiver,and Verbiage.The verbiage is the verbalization itself or the content of message.He said that.(Sayer-Process-Verbiage)The noti
22、ces tells you to keep quite.(Sayer-Process-Verbiage)She asked me some questions.(Sayer-Process-Verbiage)Process5.Behavioural Processes:Processes of BehavingBehavioural processes refer to physiological and psychological activities such as breathing,coughing,dreaming,and crying,etc.Generally only one
23、participant,the Behaver(often a human)is involved in these processes.The girl laughed heartily.(Behaver-Process-Circumstantial)He sighed deeply.(Behaver-Process-Circumstantial)Process6.Existential Processes:Processes of Existing or HappeningIt is usually realized by there-construction.The Existent i
24、n the process may be an event,an object or a human being.There was a storm.(Process-Existent)On the wall there hangs a picture.(Circumstance-Process-Existent)Theres a man at the door.(Process-Existent-Circumstance)Process TypesCategory MeaningParticipantsMaterial:Action EventDoing:Doing,happeningAct
25、or,GoalBehaviouralBehavingBehaverMental:Perfection Affection CognitionSensing:seeing feeling thinkingSenser,PhenomenonVerbalsayingSayer,receiver,verbiageRelational:Attribution IdentificationBeing:attributing identifyingCarrier,Attribute,Identifier,Identified,Token,ValueExistentialexistingExistentPar
26、ticipants1.BeneficiaryThe beneficiary is the one to whom or for whom the process is said to take place.It appears in material and verbal processes,and sometimes in relational processes.Material process recipient(one that goods are given to)He gave a book to her.Client(one that services are done for)
27、He bought a present for her.Verbal process receiverRelational process beneficiaryParticipantsIn a material process,Recipient and Client each may appear with or without a preposition,depending on its position in the clause.If it is an external dative,Recipient is associated with the preposition to an
28、d Client the preposition for.Participantse.g.He gave her a book.(Actor-Process-Beneficiary:Recipient-Goal)He gave a book to her.(Actor-Process-Goal-Beneficiary:Recipient)He bought a present for her.(Actor-Process-Goal-Beneficiary:Client)He bought her a present.(Actor-Process-Beneficiary:Client-Goal)
29、Participants2.RangeThe Range is the element that specifies the range or scope of the process.It may occur in material,behavioural,mental,and verbal process.He climbed the mountain.They moved the mountain.material processWhat he did to the mountain was climb it.What they did to the mountain was move
30、it.He has the mountain climbed.They have the mountain moved.They crossed the field flat.They trampled the field flat.(resultative attribute)(range)(goal)Participants2.RangeHe likes it.(it specifies the domain of ones liking)Mental process:Verbal process:the range element expresses the class,quality,
31、or quantity of what is said.She speaks German.(class)He asked a difficult question.(quality)He made a log speech.(quantity)CircumstancesExtent and Location Manner(Means,Quality and Comparison)Cause(Reason,Purpose and Behalf)AccompanimentMatterRole1.Extent and LocationExtent is related with the notio
32、n of distance and duration(a stretch,a period)whereas Location is related with the notion of place and time(a spot,a point).Both of them can express spatial and temporal meanings.He walked two miles.(Extent:spatial)He stayed for two weeks.(Extent:temporal)He studied in the classroom.(Location:spatia
33、l)He gets up at six oclock.(Location:temporal)2.MannerThe circumstantial element of Manner consists of three subcategories:Means,Quality,Comparison.(1a)The pig was beaten with the stick.(1b)She beat the pig with the stick.(2a)The pig was beaten by a stick.(2b)The stick beat the pig.Means refers to t
34、he means or instruments whereby a process takes place.instrumentactor,agent He came by train.2.MannerQuality expressions represent various meanings such as degree.e.g.It puzzled him too much.Comparison represents the meaning of similarity or difference.It is typically expressed by a prepositional ph
35、rase with like or unlike.e.g.He worked like a slave.He signed his name differently.3.CauseThree subcategories:Reason,Purpose,and Behalf.Behalf represents entity,“on whose behalf or for whose sake the action is undertaken”.He died of starvation.(Cause:Reason)Lets go for a walk.(Cause:Purpose)He put i
36、n a word on Johns behalf.(Cause:Behalf)Reason represents the reason for which a process takes place.Purpose represents the purpose for which a process takes place.4.AccompanimentThis semantic element represents the meanings and(positive accompaniment),not(negative accompaniment)as circumstantials.It
37、 is expressed by prepositions or prepositional phrase,e.g.with,without,instead of.e.g.He came with/without her.He came instead of her.He set out with/without his umbrella.5.MatterThis element corresponds to the interrogative“what about?”and is expressed by prepositions or prepositional phrase,e.g.ab
38、out,concerning,with reference to.e.g.I worry about her health.They are talking about the weather.6.RoleThe element corresponds to the interrogative“what is?”and is expressed by prepositions and prepositional phrase,e.g.as,by way of.e.g.I came here as a friend.They leave the place untidy by way of protest.O(_)O Thank you！