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1、.旅游经济学 1 The nature of demand Microeconomics focuses on demand as one half of the marketplace in which goods and services are to be exchanged.Demand is normally regarded as the driving force of need in the economy,which stimulates entrepreneurial activity in producing the goods and services required
2、 to satisfy that need,in exchange for the appropriate reward.At an individual level,most economic analysis treats those initiating demand as examples of Marshallian man(Kotler 1965);that is,they are concerned mainly with economic cues to their behaviour,and before considering each purchase they make
3、 a calculation of the amount of benefit,or utility,they will obtain from the purchase towards satisfying their needs.需求是产品和服务得以交易的市场双要素之一。需求指经济上可以实现的需要。需求刺激企业生产产品与服务以满足人们的需要，并获得相应的回报。经济学家只要关注消费者行为的经济线索。效用是指消费者从产品和服务购买所获得的满足他们需要的程度。A behavioural approach to demand analysis is important in travel and
4、tourism since the products are complex,the needs,and levels of product knowledge,of intending tourists are many and varied(Goodall 1988).潜在游客对旅游产品的了解程度又各不相同，旅游需求也多种多样。Thus it is vital to appreciate the motivations and characteristics of different types of tourist in making up a description of indivi
5、dual,and segment group,utility.This said,economists are mostly interested in aggregate demand,which can be defined as the quantities of a product that buyers collectively are willing and able to buy at any potential price over some specified period of time.总需求是指在一定时期内，消费者以某种可能的价格愿意并能够买得起的某种产品的数量。Thi
6、s is specifically a definition of effective demand.That is,buyers must possess the wherewithal to buy as well as the willingness（购买欲望和支付能力）.There is no doubt a very large latent demand for luxury yacht cruises or for supersonic air travel,but few buyers have the ability to pay for them.2 Products an
7、d buyer objectives in tourism The problems to identify exactly what is a travel and tourism product is difficult.It is evident from some of the motivational segments already examined that frequently tourists want products which are normally non-tradeable（旅游者所欲求的旅游产品通常是不可交易的）;for example a culture vu
8、lture（文化秃鹫）may wish to consume views of historic buildings or the experiences of street life in a different society.Nonetheless,most buyers would accept that tradeable products such as the travel services needed to reach the required location and accommodation at that location during the visit are a
9、 necessary part of the whole bundle of products making up the tourism experience.大多数旅游者依然认为可交易旅游产品是构成整个旅游产品包必不可少的组成部分。其中，旅游交通服务和在目的地的住宿服务是可交易旅游产品的典型例子，而整个旅游产品包构成了旅游体验。This means that in examining trading in tourism products(可交易的旅游产品）it is possible to view these products in two ways:as a total packag
10、e,or set of complementary products（旅游产品集）which the buyer views as a single purchase,considered for example as the dream experience.The tourist would tend to think in terms of a global price for the whole tourist trip,and the effect of a change in price of any one element,say accommodation,would depe
11、nd on the relative importance of that element in the total package cost.Also,in one sense,each element of the package may be a substitute for another,in that each competes with others for a share of the tourists total package budget.游客一次性购买组合旅游产品，欲获得“梦境”一样美妙的经历。他/她考虑的是整个游程的总体价格，任.何要素（如住宿）的价格变动效应的大小，
12、都取决于这个要素在组合旅游产品成本中的相对重要性。也就是说，从某种意义上，组合产品的每一个要素都可能是其他要素的替代品，因为所有要素都在为分享游客的组合产品预算而竞争。as individual products,which are complements certainly,but are considered separately by tourists in making their purchase decisions.Tourism products non-tradable and tradable characteristics bring some difficulties t
13、o tourists buying behaviours,please you analyse the inner affecting mechanisms of Tourism products non-tradable and tradable characteristics on tourists buying behaviours.How tourists view tradable tourism products?马歇尔需求函数 马歇尔需求函数：对于给定的（各种商品的）价格与收入，能使消费者实现效用最大化的各种商品的需求量，它是价格与收入的（向量）函数。相应地，所能实现的最大的效用
14、也是价格与收入的函数，此即间接效用函数。对于给定的价格与效用，能使消费者实现支出最小化的各种商品的需求量，即希克斯需求函数，它是价格与效用的（向量）函数。相应地，所能实现的最小的支出也是价格与支出的函数，此即支出函数。3 Buyer objectives The main reason for marketers to segment tourist markets is to enable the formulation and promotion of products to homogeneous groups of buyers;对旅游市场进行细分的主要目的是识别各细分市场的游客的产品
15、偏好，并有针对性地提供相应的旅游产品。so if segments have been chosen carefully,all buyers in segment i should possess similar motivations to purchase tourism products,all buyers in segment j similar motivations,but different from segment i,and so on.如果市场细分到家，那么细分市场 i 的所有旅游者购买旅游产品的动机应该相似，细分市场 j 的所有旅游者购买旅游产品的动机也相似，但是与市
16、场 i 的旅游者购买动机不同。The objective of any one segment is then to satisfy its motivations as fully as possible.Thus maximum utility for a particular tourist segment might mean such things as:对某一特定旅游市场细分，效用最大化意味着：developing maximum competence at snow skiing 在滑雪中显示强大的竞争力 retracing as fully as possible the ca
17、reer of an author 充分回顾某一作家的生平趣事 successfully completing a pilgrimage to Mecca 成功完成麦加朝圣之旅 completely forgetting workplace cares and acquiring the deepest possible suntan securing maximum prestige in a conference debate.在会议辩论中保全声誉 Naturally,utility may come from more complex sets of need satisfaction,
18、where internal trade-offs occur.效用可能来自更为复杂的需要的满足，这时各种需要必须权衡取舍 For example a family might wish to visit relations,whilst at the same time teenage family members wish to maximise social contact with the opposite sex,younger children to maximise playtime on the beach,and father to maximise fishing time
19、.Nevertheless,once internal trade-offs are made,the family as a purchasing unit may have an identifiable average aggregate objective.但是一旦内部的权衡取舍已经做出，那么整个家庭作为一个买主就存在一个可以识别的“平均化的一体目标。One major distinction between types of objective is important.The majority of tourists undertaking holiday or VFR trips
20、 are satisfying personal needs:that is,tourism is largely undertaken as an end in itself.These tourists can be identified as consumers with final demand.大多数旅游者去度假或探亲访友主要是为了满足个人的需要。这类旅游很大程度上是为了旅游而旅游。这类旅游者被确认为最终需求的消费者。Most business tourists on the other hand are concerned in some way with the need to
21、contribute to economic activity.Their tourism purchases are therefore analogous to any other inputs required by producers in the course of production,and their derived demand is dependent,through the businesss production function,on demand.for the businesss own output.大多数商务旅游在某种程度上确实为了经济活动而进行的。因此，购买
22、旅游产品类似于生产者购买生产所需的其它投入品一样。作为商业生产函数的投入要素，商务旅游需求取决于人们对商业产出的需求。There are of course grey areas where tourist trips may be a mixture of both final and derived demand,such as incentive travel or educational visits.奖励旅游和修学旅游 The overall objective of tourist i(or by implication market segment i)may be expres
23、sed as a functional relationship（函数关系）:Assuming such characteristics are quantifiable,high z scores would be needed to maximise utility.假设这些特性特定，那么要实现效用最大化就需要更大的 Z 值。To the hedonist（享乐主义者）,important characteristics might be:luxurious accommodations 豪华的住宿条件 gastronomic range and quality of meal exper
24、iences 精美多彩的菜肴 quality and amount of personal service throughout trips 高质量、全方位的全程服务 Reliability of carriage prestige name suppliers of tourism services.旅游服务供应商拥有良好声誉 where U represents utility and z represents a vector(j=1 to m)of quantities of characteristics,of a tourist trip,desirable to the buye
25、r.Thus the characteristics which might be important to a sunlust vacation consumer might be such things as:daily sunshine hours at the destination 目的地每天日照时间的长短 per capita beach space at the destination 目的地海滩单位面积价格 cleanliness of ocean at the destination similarity of accommodations to known standard
26、s（住宿条件和公认标准的接近程度）suitable distance(expressed in traveltime)to the destination reliability of carriage.交通安全方便 The types of tourists are varied,please analysis some kinds of tourists buying objectives.The demand of tourism products is difference form that of every day products,please indicate what dif
27、ferences between them.4 Construct a flowchart of the likely choice sequence in elements of a tourist trip for:A a business delegate to an international convention;B a family seeking a short recreational break.4 Types of variables influencing and constraining tourism demand As has been noted,tourism
28、is a very unusual product in that consumers must physically go to the place of production-the tourism factory-to acquire the product,and the travel element is part of the product itself.旅游产品时非常特殊的产品，旅游者必须到旅游产品的生产地：“旅游工厂”去购买旅游产品，同时形成本身又构成旅游产品的内容。Frequently,the economic conditions prevailing in the de
29、stination are quite different from those in the generating area,particularly in-international tourism and on long-haul visits.旅游目的地的经济条件与客源地的经济条件差别很大 Thus it is not just economic variables affecting tourists in their home areas which will have an effect on demand.Table5 provides a form of classifica
30、tion of the economic variables likely to affect tourism demand:Table 5 Sources of economic influence on tourism demand.The group A variables are those which act specifically on demand by all intending travel and tourism consumers in a generating area,regardless of their destination.A 类变量是指那些纯粹由潜在客源地
31、游客对旅游需求产生的影响因素，与目的地无关。They are largely concerned with overall constraints on the ability of buyers to enter tourism markets at all-constraints such as income and time at their disposal,and the degree of government permission for them to be tourists.这些因素在很大程度上限制了潜在游客进入旅游市场的能力，如潜在游客的可支配收入和时间的限制、政府对出游的
32、管制。Group B variables define the economic attractiveness,all else being equal,of a tourism destination to consumers,wherever they may come from.不论游客来自何方，当其他条件相同时，B 类变量决定了旅游目的地对客源地游客的经济吸引力。These variables may be product-related or supply-related.Since there is competition between,as well as within,des
33、tination areas,conditions in number of competing destinations will functionally act together,through substitution effects,to influence tourism demand.由于各个旅游目的地之间及旅游地内部存在竞争关系，所以处于竞争关系的旅游目的地会通过替代效应相互作用，从而对旅游需求产生影响。Group C variables are in many ways the most interesting,emanating from the specific link
34、 between one generating area and one destination.C 变量代表着目的地和客源地之间的某种特定的联系。That is,they will act only on demand for that destination from the one generating market.Once again,a link cannot be considered in isolation,but consumers are likely to take into account the link variables of several links,to
35、competing destinations,in making purchasing choices.Within this group of variables one would include frontier crossing(perhaps measured by a quantified dummy variable)as a tourism demand constraint.在分析目的地竞争时，不能孤立地考虑各种变量，因为旅游者在作购买决策时，很可能会考虑各种变量之间的关系。约束的过境标量、虚拟变量 The next step is to examine the forms
36、of effect that these variables are likely to have on overall demand and tourist choice.5 Levels of choice in travel and tourism demand Individual demand for tourism products involves generally more complicated decision-making.There are several levels of choice for consumers,not necessarily made sequ
37、entially.旅游者需要做出几个层次的选择，但是这些选择并不是一定就要按照顺序来做。Only when the outcomes of these individual demand decisions are known is it possible to examine properly the aggregate demand for any tourism product.只有当已知个人需求决策的结果时，才可能去测算出旅游产品的总需求。The main choices,which will be examined here,are:the overall type of touri
38、sm required destination.travel mode accommodation and attraction visiting 住宿和观光 purchasing method or distribution channel.购买方式或分销渠道的选择 5.1 Type of tourism required The first,and probably simplest,choice is of the type of tourist trip to be made(other than whether or not to buy at all).For many cases
39、,this is a no-choice situation,as for example a business sales trip,pilgrimage,sports event attendance or invitation to a family wedding.第一步，也是最简单的一步就是旅游者要选择一种出行方式。但是许多时候不需要做出选择。例如商务游客的销售之旅、信徒之旅、参加运动会或婚礼。The degree of obligation fixes the decision.旅行责任的大小限制了旅游活动类型选择的灵活性 In other cases there may be c
40、hoices such.as a beach or touring vacation 观光度假,winter cruise or winter skiing,taking a post-convention tour or visiting with friends.Destination Secondly,there is choice between destinations.A destination may be a single location,a set of locations as part of a tour,or even a moving destination suc
41、h as a cruise vessel(Holloway 1989).Individual demand depends on the group B and C variables referred to above,and the consumption technology of the destination-how well it will supply the characteristics needed by the tourist to maximise utility.目的地消费技术：旅游者最大化效用所需的各种旅游产品的供给状况。The degree of substitu
42、tion between destinations will depend on the similarity of the characteristics set.目的地之间的期待效应的大小取决于旅游产品的类似程度。However,choice is frequently restricted by imperfections in Consumer knowledge about,and perceptions of destinations.Very few tourists know accurately about all destinations which might suit
43、their needs,and therefore market equilibria are likely to be highly imperfect.极少数旅游者能够确切了解可以满足其需要的所有旅游目的地，因此，市场均衡很可能是不完美的。The most significant variable by far in destination choice appears to be relative prices.旅游者在选择目的地时，相对价格是最重要的变量。Research suggests that this explains at least 40%of variation in t
44、ravel shares of destinations,and as much as 60%where those destinations are close substitutes(Edwards 1987).travel mode Thirdly,tourists must choose their mode of travel.Frequently,type of trip and destination dictate a particular travel mode,or make one mode the only practicable alternative.旅游类型和选择
45、的旅游目的地经常决定了特定的旅行方式，或者只有一种旅行方式可以选择。However,there may be desired levels of speed,convenience,comfort,safety and so on where the principal constraint on their attainment is the price of the optimum travel mode,or the length of time available to the tourist in which to undertake journeys.最优旅行方式的价格和可得的时间
46、长度是两个基本的约束条件。For some market segments,travel itself may have a high positive utility:enjoyment of the point-to-point trip(not a day trip excursion,which is more properly a form of attraction than transport).For others,all time and money spent on travel is a cost,to be minimised if possible.而对于其他细分市场
47、来说，花在旅行上的时间和金钱都将算作成本，所以会尽量减少。The travel mode may include more than one type of carriage-as for example the only practicable way for an individual tourist to reach a destination hotel from an airport,whilst hauling luggage;might be a taxi;the same person might have driven a private car at home and pa
48、rked it at the home airport.旅行方式还可能不仅限于使用一种交通工具，某一旅游者从飞机场去往目的地宾馆，同时他的行李不方便随身携带的话，可能有一种切实可行的方式是乘坐出租车，但他出发前可能是开私家车去机场，把车停在机场。.Travel therefore also incorporates demand for use of terminals,interchanges and parking areas,whose characteristics and price must be taken into account.Where it is easy to sub
49、stitute between the price or fare is likely to be the main variable influencing demand,as has been evidenced in deregulated US and European air travel.价格和交通费用是影响各自需求的主要变量 If fares are almost identical,as may be the case in near-perfect competition or where competing carriage products,then a cartel s
50、uch as the International Air Transport Association exists,then specific characteristics such as convenient scheduling are important in influencing demand(IVarodick 1972).如果交通能够费用大致相等，就像近乎完全竞争或存在国际航空运输协会的卡特尔组织的情况下，旅游交通的某些特征，如便利性，将是影响旅游需求的重要因素。近乎完全竞争 国际航空运输协会 Choice of accommodations and attractions A