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1、戴戴炜栋简明英明英语语言学教程言学教程Chapter-4-SyntaxA branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.4.1 What is syntax?the composition of sentences:word-level categories&phrase categories;rules governing the organization of different categories into larger structural units:phras
2、e structure rule&sentence rule Syntax:(Greek)arrangementDiscussion:What can you fill in the context“The _ is smiling.”?4.2 CategoriesDiscussion:Is he really that kind?They can fish here.4.2 CategoriesDiscuss the possible meanings of the following sentences.What causes the different interpretations o
3、f each of these sentences?1.Word-level categoriesCategory:a group of linguistic items(a sentence,a noun phrase,a verb)which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language.4.2 CategoriesSyntactic category:a word(called a word/lexical category)or a phrase(called a phrase category)that
4、performs a particular function in a sentence.1)Definition1.Word-level categoriesMajor lexical category:(heads)Noun,Verb,Adjective,Preposition4.2 Categories2)Types Minor lexical category:Determiner,Degree words,Qualifier,Auxiliary,Conjunction1.Word-level categoriesMeaning:word categories bear relatio
5、nship with meaning n.:entities(human beings,objects)v.:action,sensations,states adj.:attribute of entities adv.:the properties and attributes of the actions,sensations and states4.2 Categories3)Three criteria are used to determine a words category.1.Word-level categoriesInflection:words of different
6、 categories take different inflections.n.:-s v.:-ed,-ing adj.:-er,-est 4.2 Categories3)Three criteria are used to determine a words category.1.Word-level categoriesdistribution:what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word.n.:determiner v.:auxiliary adj.:degree word 4.2 Categories3)Three cr
7、iteria are used to determine a words category.1.Word-level categoriesThe old lady suddenly left.4.2 CategoriesExercise:Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.Det A N Qual V The car stopped at the end of the road.Det N V P Det N P Det N 1.Word-level categoriesThe snow might hav
8、e blocked the road.4.2 CategoriesExercise:Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.Det A Aux Aux V Det N He never appears quite mature.N Qual V Deg A 2.Phrase categories and their structures4.2 CategoriesDiscussion:Which sentence is not considered grammatical?a.The student liked
9、 the linguistics lecture.b.The linguistics lecture liked the student.c.Liked the student the linguistics lecture.a.John hit upon an idea.b.An idea hit upon John.c.An hit John upon idea.2.Phrase categories and their structures4.2 Categoriesphrases:syntactic units that are built around a certain word
10、category.Phrase category is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.noun phrase(NP),verb phrase(VP),adjective phrase(AP),prepositional phrase(PP)2.Phrase categories and their structures4.2 CategoriesDiscuss with your deskmate whether the following phrases have the same struc
11、tural mechanism.NP:the student who likes linguisticsAP:very curious of the answerVP:quite like Peking OperaPP:right in the parkDiscussion:2.Phrase categories and their structures4.2 Categorieshead:the word around which a phrase is formedspecifiers:the words on the left side of the headscomplements:t
12、he words on the right side of the headsPhrases:one word/more than one wordgrammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase 4.3 Phrase structure ruleNP (Det)N(PP)VP (Qual)V(NP)AP (Deg)A(PP)PP (Deg)P(NP)1.XP rule:4.3 Phrase structure ruleNP (Det)N(PP)VP (Qual)V(NP
13、)AP (Deg)A(PP)PP (Deg)P(NP)XP (specifier)X(complement)Are there any structural similarities among these rules?headThe following phrases include a head,a complement,and a specifier.Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.4.3 Phrase structure rule1)full of people AP AP N fullof people2)a story ab
14、out a sentimental girl NP a Det NPPP storyaNP NP P DetA N aboutsentimentalgirl3)often read detective stories VP QualNP oftenN A detectiveV readstories4)the argument against the proposals5)move towards the windowMore Exercises:2.Coordination rule:4.3 Phrase structure ruleCoordinate structures:the phr
15、ases formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction like and,or,and but.2.Coordination rule:4.3 Phrase structure ruleDiscussion:Can you lengthen the following sentences by using coordinate structures?John,_ liked the book.He washed his face,_.2.Coordination ru
16、le:properties of coordinationNo limit on the number of coordinated categories;A category at any level(a head/an XP);The same type of coordinated categories;The category type of the coordinate phrase=the category type of the conjoined elements2.Coordination rule:4.3 Phrase structure rule X X*Con X a
17、category at any structural level(X or XP)1.Specifiers4.4 Phrase elements1)Definition:the words on the left side of the headsSemantically,make more precise the meaning of the headSyntactically,mark a phrase boundary1.Specifiers4.4 Phrase elements2)Syntactic category:depend on the category of the head
18、Heads:N Specifiers:Det the boy,his houseHeads:V Specifiers:Qual never give up,often watchHeads:A/P Specifiers:Deg very good,more beautiful,right in 2.Complements4.4 Phrase elements phrases that provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head e.g
19、.a story about a sentimental girl;angry about the news;in the room;close the window.2.Complements4.4 Phrase elementsSubcategorization:the information about a words complement,which is included in the head(what kind of complement is needed,we should see its head)Stars disappeared.(no complement)She c
20、ut herself.(one complement)He gave me the letter.(two complements)2.Complements4.4 Phrase elementsThe XP Rule(revised)XP (Specifier)X(Complement*)2.Complements4.4 Phrase elementsComplementizers(Cs):words which introduce the sentence complementComplement clause(CC):the sentence introduced by the comp
21、lementizerMiss Herbert believes that she will win.matrix clause Cs+CC=CP2.Complements4.4 Phrase elementsI am sure that she will come.He held the belief that he would find a job.We talked about how we spend the holiday.3.Modifiers4.4 Phrase elementsthe elements that specifies optionally expressible p
22、roperties of the headsModifiers of Ns:AP a tall slender girlModifiers of Vs:AdvP&PP read carefully,carefully read,land with caution3.Modifiers4.4 Phrase elementsThe Expanded XP rule:XP (Spec)(Mod)X(Complement*)(Mod)4.5 Sentences(The S Rule)S NP VP Inflp(=S)NPInfl VPSpecifierHeadComplementInfl realiz
23、ed by a tense label Inflp(=S)NPInfl VP Det N Pst NPV Det N A boy found thebook4.5 Sentences(The S Rule)Infl position realized by an auxiliary Inflp(=S)NPInfl VP Det N will NPV Det N Theteacher explain theterm4.5 Sentences(The S Rule)e.g.An unusual event occurred before the meeting.Inflp(=S)NPInfl VP
24、 Det N Pst PPV P NP Anevent occurred beforethe A Det NmeetingunusualExercise:A quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill.Inflp(=S)NPInfl VP Det NP Pst PPV P NP A Det N A N A4.6.1 Auxiliary movement4.6 TransformationsHow are the yes-no question structures built?The auxiliary occupies the normal po
25、sition in Infl(head).Inversion moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to the left of the subject.Two steps:Move Infl to the left of the subject NP.Inversion:Move Infl to C.S NPInfl VP Det N willV thetrainarrive CPC4.6.1 Auxiliary movement4.6.1 Auxiliary movementS NPInfl VP Det N eV thetrainarriv
26、e CPInfl WillCtrace,head movement4.6.2 Do insertionS NPInfl VP N NonpstVbirdsfly CPCHow do we form a yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl?Birds fly.4.6.2 Do insertionS NPInfl VP N doVbirdsfly CPCInsert interrogative do into an empty Infl position.4.6.2 Do insertionS NPInfl VP N eVbird
27、sfly CPInfl Do CInsert interrogative do into an empty Infl position.4.6.3 Deep structure and surface structure1.Deep structure:(D-structure)a level of syntactic structure formed by the XP rule in accordance with the heads subcategorization properties.2.Surface structure:(S-structure)a level of synta
28、ctic structure,the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations.Deep structureS NPInfl VP Det NV thetrainarrive willWill the train arrive?Surface structureS NPInfl VP Det N eV thetrainarrive CPInfl WillCWill the train arrive?Surface structureWill the train arri
29、ve?_ the trainarrive?WillSyntactic Mechanisms Involved in Transformational-Generative GrammarDEEP STRUCTURETransformationsSURFACE STRUCTURESubcategorizationrestricts choice of complementsthe phrasal structuresthe movement of categoriesThe XP RuleWhen transformations are not necessary,the representat
30、ions of the two levels of structure are the same.Inflp(=S)NPInfl VP Det N will NPV Det N Theteacher explain theterm4.6.4 Wh MovementWhat will you talk about?What languages can you speak?Deep Structuresyou will talk about what you can speak what languagesWhat will you talk about?S NPInfl VP N talkVYo
31、uwhat CP willVPNPPaboutCDeep StructureSurface StructureS NPInfl VP N talkVYoue CP eVPNPPabout NP NWhat willCWh MovementMove a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP.Who won the game?S NPInfl VP N wonWhogame CPVNPthePstDet NCDeep StructureWho won the game?S NPInfl VP N wongame CPVNPthePst NPWho
32、NCeSurface StructureDetWhat did you eat for lunch?S NPInfl VP eatfor CPVNPwhatdidNNPPPlunchCyouDeep StructureNWhat did you eat for lunch?S NP Infl VP eatfor CPVNPedidNNPPPlunch NPNwhateInfl CyouSurface StructureNShe has finally found the man whom she loves.Deep StructureShe has finally found the man
33、 whom she loves.Surface StructureMore exercises:What was Helen bringing to the party?4.6.5 Move and constraints on transformations Move:the general rule for all the movement rules.The XP rule:the general rule for all phrase structure rules.any element(an auxiliary,a wh phrase)that can be moved from
34、one place to another 4.6.5 Move and constraints on transformations Constraints:only certain categories are regulated by movement rules,and there are limits on how far elements can be moved.Inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position,but not to a more distant C position.CP
35、 InflP Geoffrey should know CP whether the train might be late.(deep structure)CP should InflP Geoffrey _ know CP whether the train might be late.(surface structure)No element may be removed from a coordinate structure.The author might write a story or a poem.What might the author write a story or _?Conclusion:Phrase structure rules:determine the composition of phrasessubcategorization information:ensure a match between heads and the complementsTransformations:modify a deep structure to produce a surface structure谢谢观赏谢谢观赏