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1、认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目Chapter 5 Semantics nSemantics-thestudyoflanguagemeaning.nMeaningiscentraltothestudyofcommunication.nWhatismeaning?-Scholarsunderdifferentscientificbackgroundshavedifferentunderstandingsoflanguagemeaning.wewillstudymeaningfromalinguisticpoin
2、tofview认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目Some views concerning the study of meaning nNamingtheory命名论(Plato柏拉图)nTheconceptualistview概念论nContextualism语境论(Bloomfield布隆菲尔德)nBehaviorism（行为主义）认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目Naming theory(Plato)nWordsaren
3、amesorlabelsforthings.nLimitations:1)Applicabletonounsonly.2)Therearenounswhichdenotethingsthatdonotexistintherealworld,e.g.ghost,dragon,unicorn,phenix3)Therearenounsthatdonotrefertophysicalobjectsbutabstractnotions,e.g.joy,impulse,hatred认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目The
4、 conceptualist viewnTheconceptualistviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto(i.e.betweenlanguageandtherealworld);rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目Ogden and
5、Richards:semantic triangleSymbol/formReferent/object in the Thought/reference 思想思想/指称指称nSymbol/form=linguisticelements(words,phrase)n符号/形式=语言成分nReferent=theobjectintheworldn所指=现实世界中的物体nThought/reference=concept认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目Ogden and Richards:semantic tri
6、anglenThesymbolorformreferstothelinguisticelements(wordsandphrases);nThereferentreferstotheobjectintheworldofexperience;nThoughtorreferencereferstoconcept.nThesymbolorawordsignifiesthingsbyvirtueoftheconceptassociatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindsofthespeaker;andtheconceptlookedatfromthispointofview
7、isthemeaningoftheword.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目The contextualism nMeaning should be studied in terms ofsituation,use,contextelements closelylinkedwithlanguagebehavior.Twotypesofcontextsarerecognized:nSituationalcontext:spatiotemporalsituationnLinguistic context:the
8、probability of awordsco-occurrenceorcollocation.nForexample,“black”inblackhair&blackcoffee,orblacksheepdiffersinmeaning认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目Behaviorism nBehavioristsattemptedtodefinemeaningas“thesituation in which the speaker utters it and theresponseitcallsfort
9、hinthehearer”.nThestoryofJackandJill:JillJackS_r-s_R认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目Lexical meaning nSenseandreferencearebothconcernedwiththestudyofwordmeaning.Theyaretworelatedbutdifferentaspectsofmeaning.nSense-isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthe
10、collectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.nReference-whatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.认识到了贫困户贫困的根
11、本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目Note:nLinguisticformshavingthesamesensemayhavedifferentreferencesindifferentsituations;ontheotherhand,therearealsooccasions,whenlinguisticformswiththesamereferencemightdifferinsense,e.g.themorningstarandtheeveningstar,risingsuninthemorningandthesunseta
12、tdusk.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目Major sense relations nSynonymynAntonymynPolysemynHomonymynHyponymy认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目SynonymynSynonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.1)
13、Dialectalsynonyms-synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects,e.g.autumn-fall,biscuit-cracker,petrolgasoline2)Stylisticsynonyms-synonymsdifferinginstyle,e.g.kid,child,offspring;start,begin,commence;认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目Synonymy3)Synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveoreva
14、luativemeaning,e.g.collaborator-accomplice,4)Collocationalsynonyms,e.g.accuseof,chargewith,rebukefor;5)Semanticallydifferentsynonyms,e.g.amaze,astound,认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目AntonymynGradableantonyms-thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,e.g.ol
15、d-young,hot-cold,tall-short,nComplementaryantonyms-thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother,e.g.alive-dead,male-female,nRelationalopposites-exhibitsthereversaloftherelationshipbetweenthetwoitems,e.g.husband-wife,father-son,doctor-patient,buy-sell,let-rent,employer-employee,give-rec
16、eive,above-below,认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目 Gradable antonymsnGradableantonyms-thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,e.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-short,认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目Complementary antonymsnComplementarya
17、ntonyms-thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother,e.g.alive-dead,male-female,认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目PolysemynPolysemy-thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning,e.g.“table”maymean:nApieceoffurniturenAllthepeopleseatedatatablenThefoodthatisputonatable
18、nAthinflatpieceofstone,metalwood,etc.nOrderlyarrangementoffacts,figures,etc.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目HomonymynHomonymy-thephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,e.g.differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.nHomophone-whentwowordsareide
19、nticalinsound,e.g.rain-reign,night/knight,nHomogragh-whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,e.g.tear(n.)-tear(v.),lead(n.)-lead(v.),nCompletehomonym-whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,e.g.ball,bank,watch,scale,fast,认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目Note:nDifferencesb
20、etweenpolysemyandcompletehomonyms:nApolysemicwordistheresultoftheevolutionoftheprimarymeaningoftheword(theetymologyoftheword);whilecompletehomonymsareoftenbroughtintobeingbycoincidence.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目HyponymynHyponymy-thesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,mo
21、reinclusivewordandamorespecificword.nSuperordinate:thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaning.nHyponyms:thewordwhichismorespecificinmeaning.nCo-hyponyms:hyponymsofthesamesuperordinate.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目HyponymynSuperordinate:flowernHyponyms:rose,tulip,lily,chrysanthe
22、mum,carnation,narcissus,nSuperordinate:furniturenHyponyms:bed,table,desk,dresser,nco-hyponyms认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目Sense relations between sentences n(1)XissynonymouswithYn(2)XisinconsistentwithYn(3)XentailsYn(4)XpresupposesYn(5)Xisacontradictionn(6)Xissemantical
23、lyanomalous认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目X is synonymous with YnX:Hewasabachelorallhislife.Y:Henevergotmarriedallhislife.nX:Theboykilledthecat.Y:Thecatwaskilledbytheboy.nIfXistrue,Yistrue;ifXisfalse,Yisfalse.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目X is
24、 inconsistent with YnX:Heissingle.nY:Hehasawife.nX:ThisismyfirstvisittoBeijing.nY:IhavebeentoBeijingtwice.nIfXistrue,Yisfalse;ifXisfalse,Yistrue.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目X entails YnX:Johnmarriedablondheiress.nY:Johnmarriedablond.nX:MarryhasbeentoBeijing.nY:Marryhas
25、beentoChina.nEntailmentisarelationofinclusion.IfXentailsY,thenthemeaningofXisincludedinY.nIfXistrue,Yisnecessarilytrue;ifXisfalse,Ymaybetrueorfalse.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目X presupposes YnX:Hisbikeneedsrepairing.nY:Hehasabike.nPaulhasgivenupsmoking.nPauloncesmoked.
26、nIfXistrue,Ymustbetrue;IfXisfalse,Yisstilltrue.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目X is a contradictionn*Myunmarriedsisterismarriedtoabachelor.n*ThebabybirdwithoutwingsisflyinghappilyintheskynThemuteboyissingingabeautifulsong.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了
27、“精准扶贫”项目X is semantically anomalousn*Themanispregnant.n*Thetablehasbadintentions.n*Sincerityshakeshandswiththeblackapple.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目Analysis of meaning nComponentialanalysisnPredicationanalysis认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目
28、Componential analysisnComponentialanalysis-awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning.Theapproachisbasedonthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.Forexample,nMan:+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALEnBoy:+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALEnWoman:+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALEnGirl:+H
29、UMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALE认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目Predication analysisn1)Themeaningofasentenceisnottobeworkedoutbyaddingupallthemeaningsofitscomponentwords,e.g“Thedogbitestheman”issemanticallydifferentfrom“Themanbitesthedog”thoughtheircomponentsareexactlythesame.n2
30、)There are two aspects to sentence meaning:grammaticalmeaningandsemanticmeaning,e.g.n*Greencloudsaresleepingfuriously.n*Sincerityshookhandswiththeblackapple.nWhetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyrulescalledselectionalrestrictions.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶
31、贫”项目Predication analysisnPredicationanalysis-awaytoanalyzesentencemeaning(BritishG.Leech).nPredication-theabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.Apredicationconsistsofargument(s)andpredicate.nAnargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelementsinasentence.nApredicateissom
32、ethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目Predication analysisnAccording to the number of argumentscontainedinapredication,wemayclassifythepredicationsintothefollowingtypes:nOne-placepredication:smok
33、e,grow,rise,run,nTwo-place predication:like,love,save,bite,beat,nThree-place predication:give,sent,promise,call,nNo-placepredication:Itishot.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目Predication analysisnTomsmokes.TOM(SMOKE)nThetreegrowswell.TREE(GROW)nThekidslikeapples.KIDS(LIKE)APPLEnIsenthimaletter.I(SEND)HIMLETTER