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1、篮球比赛是根据运动队在规定的比赛时间里得分多少来决定胜负的，因此，篮球比赛的计时计分系统是一种得分类型的系统6.2 Main Types of Word Meaning6.2.1 Grammatical meaning Grammatical meaning consists of word-class and inflectional paradigm(词形变化).1.Word-class:Word-class is traditionally known as the part of speech of the word.e.g.modern:adj.,modernize:v,modern
2、ization:n Lexical meaning is dominant in content words,whereas grammatical meaning is dominant in function words,but in neither case is grammatical meaning absent.篮球比赛是根据运动队在规定的比赛时间里得分多少来决定胜负的，因此，篮球比赛的计时计分系统是一种得分类型的系统2.Inflectional paradigm词词形形变变化化e.g.cat-cats,mouse-mice;great-greater to walk-walked
3、,to writewrites,wrote,written The set of grammatical forms of a word are called its paradigm.Nouns are declined,verbs are conjugated(动词)变化,and gradable可分级的 adjectives have degrees of comparison.The lexical meaning of a word is the same throughout the paradigm;that is,all the word-forms of one and th
4、e same word have the same lexical meaning,yet the grammatical meaning varies from one word-form to another;On the other hand the grammatical meaning is the same in identical set of individual forms of different words,e.g.played,sang,worked,etc.desks,data,boxes,etc.篮球比赛是根据运动队在规定的比赛时间里得分多少来决定胜负的，因此，篮球
5、比赛的计时计分系统是一种得分类型的系统6.2.2 Lexical meaningAnother component of word meaning is lexical meaning,which is different from grammatical meaning in two respects:a.Lexical meaning of a word is the same in all the forms of one and the same word while the grammatical meaning varies from one word-form to anothe
6、r;b.Every word has a different lexical meaning,whereas the grammatical meaning is the same in identical sets of individual forms of different words.篮球比赛是根据运动队在规定的比赛时间里得分多少来决定胜负的，因此，篮球比赛的计时计分系统是一种得分类型的系统nA common quoted and accepted way of classifying lexical meanings is the one by G.leech(1974),who
7、recognizes 7 types of meaning in his Semantics:1.conceptual meaning 2.connotative meaning 3.stylistic meaning 4.affective meaning associative meaning 5.reflected meaning 6.collocative meaning 7.thematic meaning 篮球比赛是根据运动队在规定的比赛时间里得分多少来决定胜负的，因此，篮球比赛的计时计分系统是一种得分类型的系统1.Conceptual meaningnConceptual mea
8、ning/denotative meaning.It is the central factor in linguistic communication.One of the functions of words is to designate or describe something,such as an object,a property,a process or a state of affairs.conceptual meaning involves the relationship between a linguistic unit(esp.a lexical item)and
9、the non-linguistic entities to which it refers.(Crystal 1980)e.g.chair:a piece of furniture for one person to sit on,having a back and,usually,four legs.The conceptual meaning is the core of the meaning of a word.It is relatively constant and stable,because it is the meaning agreed upon by all the m
10、embers of t eh same speech community.The conceptual meaning of a word is its definition given in a dictionary.篮球比赛是根据运动队在规定的比赛时间里得分多少来决定胜负的，因此，篮球比赛的计时计分系统是一种得分类型的系统Characters of conceptual meaning a.Such a meaning is the basic meaning expressed in communication.It has been written in the dictionary.
11、It has not any direct connection with the natural objects and phenomena.It never varies according to different people.b.Conceptual meaning is the reflection and summary of the natural things.e.g.manuscript-manu(hand)+script(write)-something written by hand barn-the place for storing wheat;now the pl
12、ace to keep and kind of cereal or to keep cattle.wife-woman,now refers to woman who has got married.The original meaning still exist in words like housewife,midwife.c.Some polysemic words can have different meanings in different conceptual meanings.e.g.operation -外科手术，机器操作，经营，军事演习，运算 篮球比赛是根据运动队在规定的比
13、赛时间里得分多少来决定胜负的，因此，篮球比赛的计时计分系统是一种得分类型的系统Associative meaning nAssociative meaning of a word is the total of all the meanings a person thinks of when they hear the word.Associative meaning is that part of meaning which has been supplemented to the conceptual meaning.It is the meaning which arises of th
14、e associations a word acquires.It is unstable,because it varies with culture,time,place,class,individual experiences,etc.篮球比赛是根据运动队在规定的比赛时间里得分多少来决定胜负的，因此，篮球比赛的计时计分系统是一种得分类型的系统nAssociative meaning includes connotative,stylistic,affective and collocative meanings.nFor example,in a word association tes
15、t a person might be given a word(a stimulus)and then asked to list all the things they might think of(the response).篮球比赛是根据运动队在规定的比赛时间里得分多少来决定胜负的，因此，篮球比赛的计时计分系统是一种得分类型的系统nFor example:stimulus responsen puppy warm n youngn furryn livelyn kittennwarm,young,furry,lively,kitten make up the associative m
16、eaning of puppy or that person.Associative meaning has been used in studies of memory and thought.篮球比赛是根据运动队在规定的比赛时间里得分多少来决定胜负的，因此，篮球比赛的计时计分系统是一种得分类型的系统2.Connotative meaning Connotative meaning refer to the emotional association which a word or a phrase suggested in ones mind;it is the supplementary
17、 value which is added to the purely denotative meaning of a word.e.g.mother-female parent;love,care,tenderness January-the first month of the year;cold weather,holiday rose-a garden flower which has a lot of petals and a pleasant smell.love篮球比赛是根据运动队在规定的比赛时间里得分多少来决定胜负的，因此，篮球比赛的计时计分系统是一种得分类型的系统nConno
18、tative meaning is additional in that it indicates the physical experience in the speakers associative mind,changing with speakers,situations,etc.These connotations are not given in the dictionaries,but associated with the word in actual context to particular readers and speakers.It is unstable,varyi
19、ng considerably according to culture,historical period,and the experience of the individual.篮球比赛是根据运动队在规定的比赛时间里得分多少来决定胜负的，因此，篮球比赛的计时计分系统是一种得分类型的系统Characteristics of Connotative meaning:a.Connotative meaning does not exist alone.It is something that lives together with the denotative meaning.It can b
20、e different among different people of different age,country,community and time.e.g.“Home”connotes“warmth and comfort”for some,but it may get a derogatory connotation,“coldness and troubles”,etc.to others are prejudiced against,often jeered at,beaten or scolded at home.篮球比赛是根据运动队在规定的比赛时间里得分多少来决定胜负的，因
21、此，篮球比赛的计时计分系统是一种得分类型的系统b.The connotative meaning is not limited to one speech community or one language.e.g.white-to most Chinese and westerners,certain similar favorable connotations:morally or spiritually pure;spotless,innocent.清白无暇清白无暇，洁洁白。白。fox-cunning lamb-gentle and obedient篮球比赛是根据运动队在规定的比赛时间里
22、得分多少来决定胜负的，因此，篮球比赛的计时计分系统是一种得分类型的系统c.Because connotation may vary among different people or people of different age groups,the connotation of words can increase gradually.But connotations are relatively unstable,as compared with denotation,which changes too,but not so quickly.female-denotation:woman
23、,girl;connotation:in the past,frail;being looked down upon,contempt.traditional-pass down from generation,now,stale.outdated(derogatory)篮球比赛是根据运动队在规定的比赛时间里得分多少来决定胜负的，因此，篮球比赛的计时计分系统是一种得分类型的系统3.stylistic meaning/social meaning .stylistic meaning is that which a piece of language conveys about the soci
24、al circumstances of its use.“Language must be adjusted to fit different context or situations:(1)the social relationship between the speakers or correspondents (which may be that of friend to friend,or professor to student);(2)the occasion(which may be a class reunion or an official reception);(3)Su
25、bject matter(which may be about serious political issues or about films,swimming or food),(4)the mode of discourse(spoken or written).篮球比赛是根据运动队在规定的比赛时间里得分多少来决定胜负的，因此，篮球比赛的计时计分系统是一种得分类型的系统a.Deliberate or formal:occur in written report or in dignified public speech prepared beforehand with written dr
26、aft.Words marked in dictionaries as formal,literary,poetic or archaic are to be used in these two styles.b.Consultative:Consultative style is a polite and fairly neutral style;it is used when we are talking to a person whom we do not know well,or to someone who is senior to ourselves in terms of age
27、 or social position.Common words are used in this style.篮球比赛是根据运动队在规定的比赛时间里得分多少来决定胜负的，因此，篮球比赛的计时计分系统是一种得分类型的系统c.Casual:Casual style is used in conversation between friends or in personal letters,when the language is informal,familiar,relaxed,warm and friendly.d.Intimate:Intimate style is used in con
28、versation between the most close relationship like husband and wife.A word or meaning labeled colloquial or informal is appropriate in the causal or intimate style.篮球比赛是根据运动队在规定的比赛时间里得分多少来决定胜负的，因此，篮球比赛的计时计分系统是一种得分类型的系统nIn some dictionaries,the stylistic features are clearly marked as“formal”,“inform
29、al”,“neutral”,“slang”or“literary”,etc.The stylistic difference is especially true of synonyms.For example,“kid”,“child”,“offspring”have the same conceptual meaning,but“kid”is used in colloquial language,“child”is used in neutral context and“offspring”can only be used in formal context,especially leg
30、al documents.篮球比赛是根据运动队在规定的比赛时间里得分多少来决定胜负的，因此，篮球比赛的计时计分系统是一种得分类型的系统4.Affective meaning Affective meaning is concerned with the expression of feelings and attitudes of the speaker or writer.There are a small number of words in English.e.g.(chiefly interjections)Aha!Alas!Hurrah!)scholar,masterpiece,ge
31、nerous gang,niggardly,boast Therefore this meaning can be overtly conveyed by the proper choice of words with emotive content in themselves,such as“He is an ass”and“the little girl is an angel.”Affective meaning is not a solo meaning.It is reflected by the denotative,connotative or stylistic meaning
32、 and sometimes by the use of intonation,tone and interjection.篮球比赛是根据运动队在规定的比赛时间里得分多少来决定胜负的，因此，篮球比赛的计时计分系统是一种得分类型的系统Words with affective meaning can be classified into three categories:appreciative,neutral and pejorative.Just like connotative meaning,affective meaning varies from individual to indiv
33、idual,and from culture to culture,form generation to generation.Sometimes affective meaning are brought out only by the context.篮球比赛是根据运动队在规定的比赛时间里得分多少来决定胜负的，因此，篮球比赛的计时计分系统是一种得分类型的系统5.Reflected meaning:is the meaning communicated through association with another sense of the same expression.For exam
34、ple,when we read“I saw her duck into the river”,we may first regard“duck”as a noun,but when we read the latter part of the sentence,“into the river”,we come to realize the word“duck”is verb,meaning“dive”.The first meaning we think of is the very reflected meaning“duck”in this sentence.篮球比赛是根据运动队在规定的
35、比赛时间里得分多少来决定胜负的，因此，篮球比赛的计时计分系统是一种得分类型的系统nAnother good case in point is that we always use“cheese”but not“bottom up”when toasting because“bottom up”may create a bad reflected meaning.篮球比赛是根据运动队在规定的比赛时间里得分多少来决定胜负的，因此，篮球比赛的计时计分系统是一种得分类型的系统n6.Collocative Meaning(搭配意义):is the meaning conveyed through ass
36、ociation with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.In other words,it is that part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.篮球比赛是根据运动队在规定的比赛时间里得分多少来决定胜负的，因此，篮球比赛的计时计分系统是一种得分类型的系统nMost English words are polysemous,i.e.having more than on
37、e meaning.This is the inevitable result of the development of English words and the requirement of the economy principle of language.As a result,difficulty arises when it comes to the exact meaning of a word in a given context.It is pointed out in Oxford Collocations Dictionary for Students of Engli
38、sh that“the precise meaning in any context is determined by that context:by the words that surround the combine with the core word-by collocation.”篮球比赛是根据运动队在规定的比赛时间里得分多少来决定胜负的，因此，篮球比赛的计时计分系统是一种得分类型的系统nFor example,“handsome”can be used in different contexts.“A handsome man”is a good-looking man;“a h
39、andsome woman”is a physically strong woman;“a handsome reward”is a large amount of reward”;“a handsome present”is a generous present.Only one meaning of“handsome”can be realized by the specific collocates in a given context.篮球比赛是根据运动队在规定的比赛时间里得分多少来决定胜负的，因此，篮球比赛的计时计分系统是一种得分类型的系统7.Thematic meaning（主题意
40、义）（主题意义）:is the peripheral meaning conveyed by the way in which message is organized in terms of ordering,focus and emphasis,etc.e.g.JOHN broke the vase.Who broke the vase?John broke the VASE.What did John broke?e.g.(a)The young man donated the car voluntarily.(b)The car was donated by a young man voluntarily.