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1、在日常生活中，随处都可以看到浪费粮食的现象。也许你并未意识到自己在浪费，也许你认为浪费这一点点算不了什么Part ThreeApplications and Special Scenarios Chapter 11 Social Dilemmas11-1在日常生活中，随处都可以看到浪费粮食的现象。也许你并未意识到自己在浪费，也许你认为浪费这一点点算不了什么Types of Negotiation SituationsExplicit negotiations are situations in which people seek to reach mutual agreement via bi
2、nding contract.11-2In contrast,many negotiations are conducted by actions and pledges,in the absence of a binding contract we call these situations tacit negotiations.The distinction between these two different types of negotiation situations was first articulated by the famous mathematician John Na
3、sh.(Exhibit 11-1)在日常生活中，随处都可以看到浪费粮食的现象。也许你并未意识到自己在浪费，也许你认为浪费这一点点算不了什么11-3Types of Negotiation SituationsExhibit 11-1:Two major types of negotiation situations Cooperative NegotiationsNoncooperative Negotiations Contractisexplicit.Mutualunderstanding(peopleknowwhattheyaregettingbeforetheyagree).Peopl
4、enegotiateviaproposalsandcounterproposalsandcanusewordstoexplainandjustifytheiroffers.Peopleusuallycometothetablevoluntarily.Contractistacit.Peopleoftendonotknowwhatotherswilldo.Peoplenegotiatethroughtheirbehaviorsandactions(ratherthantheirpromisesofwhattheywilldo).Peopleareoftenpulledintonegotiatio
5、nswithoutwantingtobeinvolved.在日常生活中，随处都可以看到浪费粮食的现象。也许你并未意识到自己在浪费，也许你认为浪费这一点点算不了什么Types of Negotiation SituationsIn tacit negotiations:11-4Negotiators are interdependent with respect to outcomes,but make independent decisions.Negotiators outcomes are determined by the actions they take and the action
6、s taken by others.People can behave either in a cooperative fashion(cooperative games)or competitive fashion(noncooperative games).在日常生活中，随处都可以看到浪费粮食的现象。也许你并未意识到自己在浪费，也许你认为浪费这一点点算不了什么Types of Negotiation SituationsThe situation that results when people engage in behaviors that maximize self-interest
7、s but lead to collective disaster is called a social dilemma.11-5Examples of social dilemmas are a bidding war,negative campaigning,and greenhouse gases.在日常生活中，随处都可以看到浪费粮食的现象。也许你并未意识到自己在浪费，也许你认为浪费这一点点算不了什么Types of Negotiation Situations11-6In this chapter,we discuss several types of social dilemmas,
8、each depicting real-world situations that might face a negotiator,such as:The prisoners dilemmaThe ultimatum dilemmaThe dictator gameThe trust dilemmaThe volunteer dilemmaMultiparty dilemmasEscalation dilemma在日常生活中，随处都可以看到浪费粮食的现象。也许你并未意识到自己在浪费，也许你认为浪费这一点点算不了什么The Prisoners Dilemma11-7When each perso
9、n in the prisoners game pursues the course of action that is most rational from their point of view and in their individual self-interest,the result is mutual disaster.(Exhibit 11-2)The choices that players make in this game are either cooperation or defection.在日常生活中，随处都可以看到浪费粮食的现象。也许你并未意识到自己在浪费，也许你
10、认为浪费这一点点算不了什么11-8The Prisoners DilemmaExhibit 11-2:Consequences of Thelma and Louises behaviors在日常生活中，随处都可以看到浪费粮食的现象。也许你并未意识到自己在浪费，也许你认为浪费这一点点算不了什么The Prisoners Dilemma:Tit-for-Tat11-9The“tit-for-tat”strategy why it works and why it maximizes overall gains:Not envious never aims to beat its opponent
11、Nice always begins the interaction by cooperatingTough conveys the message that the negotiator cannot be taken advantage ofForgiving the negotiators response will never be greater than what it receivedSimple counterparty quickly figures out what to expect from a player who follows it在日常生活中，随处都可以看到浪费
12、粮食的现象。也许你并未意识到自己在浪费，也许你认为浪费这一点点算不了什么The Prisoners Dilemma11-10How can an escalating spiral of defection be brought to an end?Consider the following strategies:Make promises.Make situational attributions.Take one step at a time.Getting even and catching upMake your decisions at the same time.在日常生活中，随
13、处都可以看到浪费粮食的现象。也许你并未意识到自己在浪费，也许你认为浪费这一点点算不了什么Ultimatum Dilemma11-11In an ultimatum bargaining situation,one person(the proposer)makes a final offer(an ultimatum).If the other party(the responder)accepts the offer,then the proposer receives the demand and the responder agrees to accept what was offere
14、d to him or her.If the offer is refused,then no settlement is reached and the negotiators receive their respective reservation points.在日常生活中，随处都可以看到浪费粮食的现象。也许你并未意识到自己在浪费，也许你认为浪费这一点点算不了什么Ultimatum Dilemma11-12Several factors determine the likelihood that the responder will accept the offer made by th
15、e proposer:Complete versus incomplete informationFramingDeadlinesFeelings and emotionsSocial identity在日常生活中，随处都可以看到浪费粮食的现象。也许你并未意识到自己在浪费，也许你认为浪费这一点点算不了什么Dictator Game11-13In the dictator game,the proposer makes a suggested split of resources for herself and the responder.The responder must accept th
16、e split.On the surface,it would seem that in such a situationthe proposer would keep everything for herself,given that that the responder has no say in the matter.A striking number of proposers(dictators)choose to give the responder a non-zero allocation.在日常生活中，随处都可以看到浪费粮食的现象。也许你并未意识到自己在浪费，也许你认为浪费这一
17、点点算不了什么The Trust Game11-14In the trust game,the first move is made by the proposers partner,the trustor,who must decide how much of his or her initial endowment to trust the proposer with,in hopes of receiving some of it back.The rules of the game specify the gift that the trustor makes to the trust
18、ee will be increased by some factor.Behavior in trust games involves possible deception if the partner is trusting.在日常生活中，随处都可以看到浪费粮食的现象。也许你并未意识到自己在浪费，也许你认为浪费这一点点算不了什么The Trust Game11-15The trust game affects and is affected by several factors,including:Binding versus nonbinding contracts Social net
19、works and reputationsRelationship threatSelf-blame and regretRestoring broken trust在日常生活中，随处都可以看到浪费粮食的现象。也许你并未意识到自己在浪费，也许你认为浪费这一点点算不了什么Volunteer Dilemma11-16This is a schema in which one person in a group must sacrifice their interests to benefit the group.Communication increases volunteering and th
20、e act of volunteering strengthens group ties.Feelings of obligation to ones group,expectation of extrinsic rewards,and identifying with ones organization all significantly increase volunteerism.在日常生活中，随处都可以看到浪费粮食的现象。也许你并未意识到自己在浪费，也许你认为浪费这一点点算不了什么Multiparty Dilemmas11-17People behave more competitive
21、ly in groups than in two-person situations why?The costs of defection are spread out.Multiparty social dilemmas are riskier than prisoners dilemmas.Multiparty social dilemmas provide anonymity that prisoners dilemmas do not.People in multiparty social dilemmas have less control over the situation.在日
22、常生活中，随处都可以看到浪费粮食的现象。也许你并未意识到自己在浪费，也许你认为浪费这一点点算不了什么Multiparty Dilemmas:Tragedy of The Commons11-18The hallmark characteristic of social dilemmas is that the rational pursuit of self-interest is detrimental to the collective welfare a.k.a.,The Tragedy of the Commons.Unless limits are placed on the pur
23、suit of personal goals,the entire society may suffer.在日常生活中，随处都可以看到浪费粮食的现象。也许你并未意识到自己在浪费，也许你认为浪费这一点点算不了什么11-19Two major forms of social dilemmas are:Resource conservation dilemmas(a.k.a.,collective traps)(Exhibits 11-3A&B and 11-4)Public goods dilemmas(a.k.a.,collective fences)Multiparty Dilemmas:Tr
24、agedy of The Commons在日常生活中，随处都可以看到浪费粮食的现象。也许你并未意识到自己在浪费，也许你认为浪费这一点点算不了什么11-20Exhibit 11-3A:Example of negative campaigningMultiparty Dilemmas:Tragedy of The Commons在日常生活中，随处都可以看到浪费粮食的现象。也许你并未意识到自己在浪费，也许你认为浪费这一点点算不了什么11-21Multiparty Dilemmas:Types of Social Dilemmas Exhibit 11-3B:Example of comparati
25、ve advertising在日常生活中，随处都可以看到浪费粮食的现象。也许你并未意识到自己在浪费，也许你认为浪费这一点点算不了什么11-22Exhibit 11-4:Different kinds of social dilemmasTakingContributingInternal(intraorganizational)Resources(e.g.,money,realestate,staffing)BudgetfudgingCommitteeworkRecognitionExternal(interorganizational)PricecompetitionBrandcompeti
26、tionOverharvestingPollutionPayingtaxesPublictelevisionMultiparty Dilemmas:Types of Social Dilemmas 在日常生活中，随处都可以看到浪费粮食的现象。也许你并未意识到自己在浪费，也许你认为浪费这一点点算不了什么Multiparty Dilemmas11-23There are two major types of approaches for maximizing cooperation in social dilemmas:Structural strategiesPsychological stra
27、tegiesSee Exhibit 11-5.在日常生活中，随处都可以看到浪费粮食的现象。也许你并未意识到自己在浪费，也许你认为浪费这一点点算不了什么11-24Multiparty DilemmasExhibit 11-5:Strategies for maximizing cooperation in social dilemmasStructural StrategiesPsychological StrategiesAlignincentivesPsychologicalcontractsMonitorbehaviorEconomicsRegulationCommunicationPri
28、vatizationPersonalizeothersTradablepermitsSocialsanctionsFocusonbenefitsofcooperation在日常生活中，随处都可以看到浪费粮食的现象。也许你并未意识到自己在浪费，也许你认为浪费这一点点算不了什么Multiparty Dilemmas:Structural Strategies11-25Structural strategies involve fundamental changes in the ways that social dilemmas are constructed and often require
29、and act of government to enact.Align incentivesMonitor behaviorRegulationPrivatizationTradable permits在日常生活中，随处都可以看到浪费粮食的现象。也许你并未意识到自己在浪费，也许你认为浪费这一点点算不了什么Multiparty Dilemmas:Psychological Strategies11-26Psychological strategies are usually engaged in by the organizational actor and are inexpensive.P
30、sychological contracts and the norm of commitmentEconomicsCommunicationPersonalize othersSocial sanctionsFocus on benefits of cooperation在日常生活中，随处都可以看到浪费粮食的现象。也许你并未意识到自己在浪费，也许你认为浪费这一点点算不了什么Multiparty Dilemmas11-27How to encourage cooperation in multiparty social dilemmas when the negotiating parties
31、 should not collude:Keep your strategy simple.Signal via actions.Do not be the first to defect.Focus on your own payoffs,not your payoffs relative to others.Be sensitive to egocentric bias.在日常生活中，随处都可以看到浪费粮食的现象。也许你并未意识到自己在浪费，也许你认为浪费这一点点算不了什么Escalation of Commitment11-28The escalation of commitment r
32、efers to the unfortunate tendency of negotiators to persist with a losing course of action,even in the face of clear evidence that their behaviors are not working and the negotiation situation is quickly deteriorating.See Exhibit 11-6.在日常生活中，随处都可以看到浪费粮食的现象。也许你并未意识到自己在浪费，也许你认为浪费这一点点算不了什么11-29Exhibit
33、11-6:Escalation of CommitmentEscalation of CommitmentSource:Adapted from Staw,B.M.,&Ross,J.(1987).Behavior in escalation situations:Antecedents,prototypes,and solutions.In L.L.Cummings&B.M.Staw(Eds.),Research in organizational behavior(Vol.9,p.45).Greenwich,CT:Jai Press Inc.在日常生活中，随处都可以看到浪费粮食的现象。也许你
34、并未意识到自己在浪费，也许你认为浪费这一点点算不了什么Escalation of Commitment11-30Ways to avoid the escalation of commitment in negotiations:Set limits.Avoid decision myopia.Recognize sunk costs.Diversify responsibility and authority.Redefine the situation.在日常生活中，随处都可以看到浪费粮食的现象。也许你并未意识到自己在浪费，也许你认为浪费这一点点算不了什么Chapter Conclusio
35、nPrisoners dilemmas and social dilemmas are characterized by the absence of contract and enforcement mechanisms;people must choose between acting in a self-interested or cooperative fashion and are therefore vulnerable to exploitation.In social dilemmas,the best way to ensure cooperation is to:align
36、 incentives;monitor behavior;practice regulation and privatization;use tradable permits;communicate with involved parties;personalize others;and focus on the benefits of cooperation.Strategic pie-expanding and pie-slicing strategies in the prisoners dilemma can be achieved via tit-for-tat strategy,b
37、ut this strategy only works with two players in a repeated game.11-31Escalation dilemmas occur when people invest in a losing course of action.People can deescalate via:setting limits;getting several perspectives;recognizing sunk costs;diversifying responsibility;and redefining the situation or the decision criteria.