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1、毕业论文的结构1前置部分 (Front Matter)：中文封面（Cover, in Chinese）英文题名页（Title Page, in English）郑重声明论文使用授权说明目录（Contents）英文摘要、关键词页（Abstract and Key Words, in English）中文摘要、关键词页（Abstract and Key Words, in Chinese）2正文部分 (Body)：引言（Introduction）主体（Body）结论（Conclusion）3文尾部分 (Back Matter)：参考文献（Works Cited）致谢 （Acknowledgemen
2、ts）附录（Appendix）封底（Back Cover）论文标题1. 论文的标题应具备以下特征：1) 准确。要做到“题与文相符”，概括文章的基本内容，揭示文章的主题。2) 醒目。要引人注目，给人留下深刻印象。3) 新颖。要有新鲜感。只有作者的思想新颖，论题才能富有新意。4) 简洁。要具有高度的概括性。字数限制在20个字以内（一般不超过10个实词）。5) 具体。要具体地表达出论文的观点，切忌空泛而谈。 2. 英文标题四种结构1) 名词性词组(包括动名词) Sister Carries Broken Dream2) 介词词组On the theme of Young Goodman Brown
3、by Hawthorne3) 名词词组+介词词组A comparison between a Teacher-Centered Class and a Students-Centered Class4) 疑问式How to Use a Computer in Managing an English Class （学术论文不建议使用此标题方式）有的标题由两部分组成，用冒号( ：)隔开。一般来说，冒号前面一部分是主标题，提出文章中心或主旨。冒号后面是副标题，补充说明主标题的内容，如研究重点或研究方法。 Charles Dickens: The Master of Critical Realism
4、（查尔斯狄更斯批判现实主义大师）Positions of Attributes and Adverbials in English and Chinese：A Comparative Study（英汉定语和状语的位置比较）The Chinese Version of Jude the Obscure：An Outstanding Example of Artistic Recreation（艺术再创造的范例无名的裘德汉译本）3. 标题中各词的大小写1) 名词、代词、动词、形容词、副词、从属连词(because, if, until, when)首字母大写2) 介词、冠词、并列连词(and, b
5、ut, for)、不定式to首字母小写。3) 标题第一个单词、最后一个单词无论词性首字母应该大写。摘要摘要是对全篇论文的精炼概括。它能让读者在短时间内对论文的内容和价值作出初步判断。摘要必须简洁明了，重点突出，层次分明，让读者高效地获取信息。摘要一般在初稿完成后再着手撰写，因为如果不对论文有一个整体把握，是难以归纳总结、取其精华的。中文摘要中不使用“本文”、“作者”等作为主语，应采用“对进行了研究”、“报告了现状”、“进行了调查”等表达方式，一般不分段落。摘要正文的字数为300字以内。 摘要应包括以下内容：1）研究主题/范围 2）背景信息 3）研究目的 4）研究方法/步骤 5）研究发现 6）研
6、究结论和研究所带来的启示请阅读以下摘要（见TESOL Quarterly, 2002）：Speaking and Writing in the University: A Multidimensional ComparisonAbstract (1) The dozens of studies on academic discourse carried out over the past 20 years have mostly focused on written academic prose (usually the technical research article in scienc
7、e or medicine) or on academic lecture. (2) Other registers that may be more important for students adjusting to university life, such as textbooks, have received surprisingly little attention, and spoken registers such as study groups or on-campus service encounters have been virtually ignored. (3)
8、To explain more fully the nature of the tasks that incoming international students encounter, this article undertake a comprehensive linguistic description of the range of spoken and written register at U. S. universities. (4) Specifically, the article describes a multidimensional analysis of regist
9、er variation in the TOEFL 2000 Spoken and Written Academic Language Corpus. (5) The analysis shows that spoken registers are fundamentally different from written ones in university contexts, regardless of purpose. (6) Some of the register characterizations are particularly surprising. (7) For exampl
10、e, classroom teaching was similar to conversational registers in many respects, and departmental brochures and Web pages were as informationally dense as textbooks. (8) The article discusses the implications of theses findings for pedagogy and further research. 作者在第一、二句中提出了研究的主题（academic discourse）、
11、论文关注的对象（textbooks、study groups和service encounters）和背景信息（dozens of studies over the past 20 years、Other registers have received surprisingly little attention, have been virtually ignored.）；在第三句中，作者指出了研究的目的；第四句简要说明了研究的方法；第五句则是研究的发现，最后几句则是该研究发现为教学和对以后研究所带来的启示。英文摘要常用句式研究目的The purpose of this thesis is t
12、oThe primary goal of this research is toThe chief aim of the thesis is toThe study is intended toThe thesis aims to研究主题/范围This thesis discusses (studies, concerns, addresses, deals with, examines, explores, probes into, elaborates on)This thesis argues/ demonstrates thatSubjects covered includeSome
13、of the specific topic discussed areThe scope of the research covers研究重点Particular attention is paid toThere has been a focus onThis study concentrates onThe greatest emphasis has been onThe primary emphasis in this thesis is on研究方法/步骤The method used in this study is known asThe procedure can be brie
14、fly described asThe approach that has been adopted extensively is calledInvestigations on . were carried out.Experiments have been carried out to test the validity ofThe experiment, consisted of three steps, is described inThe research has recorded valuable data using the newly developed methodThe f
15、undamental features of this theory are as followsThe theory is characterized byThis thesis analyzes (compares)This thesis consists of three chapters. Chapter One gives an overview ofChapter Two exploresChapter Three deals with研究发现It is found/indicated thatThe results of the experiment indicates that
16、The studies show that The investigation carried out by has revealed that The studies throw lights on the nature of Examples with actual experiment demonstrate that研究结论This thesis concludes thatThe authors conclusion is thatIn conclusion,建议The data/results suggest thatRecommendations are made regardi
17、ngSuggestions are made for further study of 撰写摘要注意事项1. 用词尽可能简洁。可以用单词表达的就不用短语，可以用短语表达的就不用句子。2. 摘要的叙述一定要客观确凿，不宜使用perhaps, maybe, likely, possibly, probably等模糊性词语，也不应该含有倾向性评论。3. 不要过多地叙述背景知识，所提供的背景信息应该与本研究密切相关，以突出本研究的意义和创新性。4. 不要加进编写者未来的计划和打算，诸如“有关方面的研究有待于进一步展开”等。5. 人称：采用第三人称表达。6. 时态：1）说明研究目的、叙述研究内容、描述研
18、究结果、得出研究结论、提出建议时使用一般现在时。2）说明某课题现已取得的成果，可采用现在完成时。3）叙述研究过程，可采用一般过去时。7. 语态：主动语态和被动语态均可使用。在反映客观事物，特别是介绍作者所做的工作时多使用被动语态。在介绍研究目的和结论时多使用主动语态。8. 句型：一般采用主谓结构的陈述句。尽量避免以短语或从句开头，多以重要的事实开头。关键词 (Key Words)关键词是指从论文中选取出来用以说明论文研究范围、对象、方法和中心论点的专有名词、术语和名词词组。关键词是论文中出现频率最高的词汇，是论文论述的焦点。关键词、标题和摘要是高度统一的。数量一般为3-5个。论文正文（5000
19、词以上）：引言（约1000词）+主体（3000词以上）+结论（1000词以内）引言 （绪论）引言一般包括以下内容：1）介绍选题的背景和研究意义，2）介绍前人的研究情况，适当加以评价或比较3）指出前期研究的空白点或提出新问题以及解决这些问题的方法与思路4）明确论文的研究对象、中心论点、研究方法和论文的整体框架。引言不要与文献综述和摘要雷同。在引言中，要着重论述本人选择该论题的原因、目的和意义。评价文献时，不要漫无边际地罗列一系列著作或文章，而是要凸显自己的研究论题在其中的地位以及与它们的联系，以及本人在哪方面做了补充、发展和创新。引言应起到介绍研究背景、引出论述主题、激发读者阅读兴趣的作用。许多
20、人选择在完成论文的主体之后，对自己的全文有了整体认识，再回过头来撰写论文的引言部分。有时会出现这种情况，初稿的结论部分变成了第二稿的引言。主体（本论）主体是毕业论文的核心部分，一般分成三到四章来写作。注意每一章开头要有引言段/介绍段（说明本章要研究的问题，主要内容或观点）；结尾要有结论段（总结本章内容）。在论文主体中，作者要采取合适的论证方法，用大量的论据来论证中心论点。一个可作为论据的具体材料，往往具有多面性，如果从不同的角度去分析，就可发掘出不同的意义。我们要明确地解释我们的论据与论点之间的内在逻辑关系，而不是仅仅把论据列出来不加分析和说明，期待读者自己看出它们之间的联系。例：The pa
21、rty is terrible. There is no alcohol. The party is great. There is no alcohol.论点1. 立论要有据可依，不可主观臆断，更不要前后矛盾。2. 论点要明确，不要论证许久，读者却不知为何而论证，尤其要避免用词模糊而产生的歧义。3. 论点要深刻而新颖。Six steps for making the thesis evolve1. Formulate an idea about your subject, a working thesis. 2. See how far you can make this thesis go
22、 in accounting for evidence. 3. Locate evidence that is not adequately accounted for by the thesis. 4. Make explicit the apparent mismatch between the thesis and selected evidence, asking and answering So what? 5. Reshape your claim to accommodate the evidence that hasnt fit. 6. Repeat steps 2 throu
23、gh 5 several times. Example: In the film Educating Rita, a working-class English hairdresser (Rita) wants to change her life by taking courses from a professor (Frank) at the local university, even though this move threatens her relationship with her husband (Denny), who burns her books and pressure
24、s her to quit school and get pregnant. Frank, she discovers, has his own problems: hes a divorced alcoholic who is bored with his life, bored with his privileged and complacent students, and bent on self-destruction. The film follows the growth of Frank and Ritas friendship and the changes it brings
25、 about in their lives. By the end of the film, each has left a limiting way of life behind and has set off in a seemingly more promising direction. She leaves her constricting marriage, passes her university examinations with honors, and begins to view her life in terms of choices; he stops drinking
26、 and sets off, determined but sad, to make a new start as a teacher in Australia. working thesis: Educating Rita celebrates the liberating potential of educationcomplicating evidence: Franks problems are caused (in part) by his education.revised thesis: Educating Rita celebrates the liberating poten
27、tial of enabling (in contrast to stultifying) education revisited evidence: Franks stultifying education is associated with a smug, stale elite. Ritas enabling education corresponds with lower-class energy and doses of “real-life” revised thesis: Educating Rita celebrates the liberating potential of
28、 enabling education, defined as that which remains open to healthy doses of working-class, real-world infusionscomplicating evidence: Frank and Rita both end up alone and alienate. revised thesis: Educating Rita celebrates the liberating potential of enabling education (kept open to real-world, work
29、ing-class energy) but also acknowledges its potential costs in loneliness and alienation.论据1. 论据和论点要统一。如果论据在论证论点时有牵强感觉，要坚决去掉。比如，要证明苔丝这部作品奠定了作者批判现实主义作家的地位，就需要提供相关的论据表现其对传统的道德、伪善的宗教、不幸的婚姻和腐朽社会的批判，而不是大段描写故事情节和人物性格。2. 论据要有说服力，即真实可靠、典型、充分。3. 论据的提出不能一味罗列，要注意顺序和层次，并根据需要来选择论据的类型。比如，当需要引出论题，证明其重要性时可以援引理论或权威论
30、述；当需要驳斥对方观点时，可以举出事例或数据指出其谬误。论据的类型Statistical Evidence 数据Statistics are a primary tool for those writing in the natural and especially the social sciences. They have the advantage of greater objectivity, and, in the social sciences, of offering a broad view of a subject. Remember, though, that, like
31、other forms of evidence, statistics do not speak for themselves; their significance must be overtly elucidated. Nor should it simply be assumed that statistics are valid representations of the reality they purport to measureAnecdotal Evidence事例An anecdote is a little story (a narrative), a piece of
32、experience. Anecdotal evidence involves the close examination of particular instances, often including the writers or researchers own experience with whatever he or she is studying. So, for example, a historian wishing to understand the origins and development of the Latino community in a small East
33、 Coast American city might use as a large part of his or her evidence interviews conducted with local Latino residents. Anecdotal evidence is in some ways at the opposite extreme from statistical evidence. Statistical research often attempts to locate broad trends and patterns by surveying large num
34、bers of people and tries to arrive at reliable information by deliberately controlling the kind and amount of questions it asks. By contrast, the kind of thinking based on anecdotal evidence is less concerned with verifiable trends and patterns than with a more detailed and up-close presentation of
35、particular instances. Authorities as Evidence 权威论断A common way of establishing support for a claim is to invoke an authorityto call in as evidence the thinking of an expert in the subject area you are writing about. Much academic writing consists of evaluating and revising views that people have com
36、e to believe are authoritative. The building of knowledge involves in large part the ongoing consideration of who or what will be accepted as authoritative. In chapter 14 we explain how to userather than just include and agree withother writers on your subject.Empirical Evidence 经验证据Empirical eviden
37、ce is derived from experience, the result of observation and experiment, as opposed to theory. It is usually associated with the bodily senses; the word empirical means capable of being observed, available to the senses; the word comes from the Greek word for experience. Evidence from the sciences,
38、for example, is heavily empirical. But in the humanities, too, analyses are based on observationof texts, of musical scores, of art worksnot just on theories. Experimental Evidence 实验证据Experimental evidence is a form of empirical evidence (capable of being observed). It is distinguished from other f
39、orms of evidence by the careful attention to procedure it requires. Evidence in the sciences is usually recorded in particular predetermined formats, both because methodology is important and because the primary test of validity in the sciences is that the experiment must be repeatable so that anoth
40、er experimenter can follow the same procedure and achieve the same results. Textual Evidence 文本证据We are using the term textual evidence to designate instances in which the language itself is of fundamental importance, in which the emphasis lies on how things are worded. A primary assumption in analy
41、zing textual evidence is that the meanings of words are never simple and unambiguous. That is, the meanings of particular words cannot be assumed; they must be explained, and those explanations must be argued for. Insofar as the actual language of a document counts, you are in the domain of textual
42、evidence. How to use sourcesTypically, inexperienced writers either use sources as answersthey let the sources do too much of their thinkingor ignore them altogether as a way of avoiding losing their own ideas. If they agree with what a source says, they say its good, and they cut and paste the part
43、 they can use as an answer. If the source somehow disagrees with what they already believe, they say its bad, and they attack it oralong with readings they find hard or boringdiscard it.The first step in using sources effectively is to reject the assumption that sources provide final and complete an
44、swers. If they did, there would be no reason for others to continue writing on the subject. Use the source as a point of departure, that is, use it as a stimulus to have an idea.Guidelines for writing the research paper1. Avoid the temptation to plug in sources as answers. Think of sources as voices
45、 inviting you into a community of interpretation, discussion, and debate. 2. Put your sources into conversation with one another, rather than limiting yourself to agreeing or disagreeing with your sources, 3. Find your own role in the Conversation.4. Quote, paraphrase, or summarize in order to analy
46、ze. Explain what you take the source to mean, showing the reasoning that has led to the conclusion you draw from it. Quote, paraphrase, or summarize in order to analyzenot in place of analyzing. Dont assume that either the meaning of the source material or your reason for including it is self-eviden
47、t. Explain to your readers what the quotation, paraphrase, or summary of the source means. What elements of it do you find interesting, revealing, or strange? Emphasize how those affect your evolving thesis. In making a source speak, focus on articulating how the source has led to the conclusion you
48、 draw from it. Beware of simply putting a generalization and a quotation next to each other (juxtaposing them) without explaining the connection. Instead fill the crucial site between claim and evidence with your thinking. 5. Use your selections from sources as a means of raising issues and questions. As long as you consider only the source in isolation, you may not discover much to say about it. Once you begin considerin