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1、Chapter 1 OverviewAfter learning this unit,you will be able to:define what is meant by international trade explain the reasons for engaging in international trade identify the benefits of international trade understand various means of trade restrictionChapter 1 Overview Reasons for International Tr
2、ade 1.Resources reasons2.Economic reasonsAbsolute advantageComparative advantage3.Other reasons1.Resource reasonsThe uneven distribution of resources around the world is one of the basic reasons why nations began and continue to trade with each other.1)Favorable climatic conditions and terrainClimat
3、ic conditions and terrain are very important for agricultural produces.The difference in these factors enables some countries to grow certain plants and leaves other countries with the only choice to import the produces they consume.For example,Colombia and Brazil have the ideal climate for growing
4、coffee beans but other countries dont.Then Colombia and Brazil have the opportunity to export coffee beans and coffee to countries worldwide.Another example is that the US Great Plains states have the ideal climate and terrain for raising wheat.This has made the US a big wheat exporter.2)Natural res
5、ourcesSome countries are the major suppliers of certain natural resources because the distribution of natural resources around the world is somewhat haphazard.The Middle East West Europe and Japan need is imported from the Middle East the US oil military consumption in Europe and Asia is largely pur
6、chased from that area.3)Skilled workersUS,Japan,and western European countries have skilled workers who are able to manufacture sophisticated equipment and machinery such as jet aircrafts and computers,etc.Other countries,since they dont have well-trained engineers and workers,must import the equipm
7、ent from these countries.4)Capital resourcesDeveloping countries need to modernize their industries and economies with advanced machinery,equipment and plant that they are not yet able to manufacture because of the lack of capital.This has given rise to the need for developing international trade.5)
8、Favorable geographic location and transport costsThere are many examples that countries have developed close economic relationships chiefly because they are geographically close to each other.Sino-Japanese trade relationship is to some degree determined by geographic proximity and low transport cost
9、.6)Insufficient productionSome countries cannot produce enough items they need.UK does not have a large enough agricultural population.only 5%of its population is engaged in agriculture and they mainly grow fruits and flowers.UK then has to import 60%of its total agricultural consumption.2.Economic
10、reasonsIn addition to getting the products they need,countries also want to gain economically by trading with each other.It is made possible by varied prices for the same commodity around the world,reflecting the differences in the cost of production.1)Absolute advantageAdam Smiths-each country coul
11、d produce one or more commodities at a lower real cost than its trading partners.It then follows that each country will benefit from specialization in those commodities in which it has an“absolute advantage”,exporting them and importing other commodities which it produces at a higher real cost than
12、does another country.Absolute-cost ExampleFrom the example,We can see clearly that Scotland should specialize in the production of cloth on which it has a cost advantage.Days of Labor Required to ProduceCountryCloth(1 bolt)Wine(1 barrel)Scotland30120Portugal100202)Comparative advantageDavid Ricardo-
13、absolute cost advantages are not a necessary condition for two nations to gain from trade with each other.Instead,trade will benefit both nations provided only that their relative cost,that is,the ratios of their real costs,are different for two or more commodities.In short,trade depends on differen
14、ces in comparative cost,and one nation can profitably trade with another even though its real costs are higher(or lower)in every commodity.Comparative-cost ExampleClearly the United States benefits from specializing in cars,which it produces more cheaply than Brazil,and trading with Brazil for some
15、of the computers it produces more cheaply.productU.S.Brazil100 cars2 41,000 computers343)Other reasonsAll in all,in todays complex economic world,neither individuals nor nations are self-sufficient.Nations have utilized different economic resources;people have developed different skills.This is the
16、foundation of international trade and economic activities.International Trade Policy Gains from Free TradeGains from Inter-industry specializationEconomies of ScaleIf countries can specialize in certain goods they can benefit from economies of scale and lower average costs,this is especially true in
17、 industries with high fixed costs or that require high levels of investment.The benefits of economies of scale will ultimately lead to lower prices for consumers.Gains from Free TradeGains from Inter-industry specializationIncreased CompetitionWith more trade domestic firms will face more competitio
18、n from abroad therefore there will be more incentives to cut costs and increase efficiency.It may prevent domestic monopolies from charging too high prices.Gains from Free TradeGains from Inter-industry specializationTrade is an engine of growthWorld trade has increased by an average of 7%since the
19、1945,causing this to be one of the big contributors to economic growth.Gains from Free TradeGains from Intra-industry specializationIntra-industry specialization tends to occur in industries characterized by the existence of imperfect competition.In most cases,intra-industry specialization involved
20、countries exchanging different varieties of the same good.Reasons for Trade Restrictionlinfant industry argument-maintains that a new industry needs to be protected until the labor force is trained,the production techniques are mastered and the operation becomes large enough to enjoy the economies o
21、f scale and to be able to compete in the market.Reasons for Trade RestrictionUnfair competition.Foreign firms may receive subsidies or other government benefits.They may be dumping(selling goods abroad at below cost price to capture a market).Balance of payments.Reducing imports improves the balance
22、 of trade.Cultural Identity This is not really an economic argument but more political and cultural.Many countries wish to protect their countries from what they see as an Americanization or commercialization of their countries.Reasons for Trade RestrictionThe Senile industry argument.If industries
23、are declining and inefficient they may require large investment to make them efficient again.Protection for these industries would act as an incentive to for firms to invest and reinvent themselves.However protectionism could also be an excuse for protecting inefficient firms.Different Means of Prot
24、ection(1)Tariff barriersA tariff is a duty or fee levied on goods being imported into a country.It can be a revenue tariff,which is collected mainly for income purpose,or a protection tariff,which is collected in order to protect the domestic market.(2)Non-tariff barriersQuotaThis is a quantitative
25、restriction or upper limit in terms of physical quantity or value.The upper limit can be set on global(first come first served)basis or on country basis.An absolute quota is one that cannot be exceeded and a tariff quota is one that requires low or no duties below the limit but high duties or penalt
26、y above the limit.Voluntary Export RestraintsVoluntary export restraints enable one country to force onto another country through bilateral agreement a low rate of increase in export volume.In many case,it is not really a“voluntary”measure taken on the part of the exporting country but rather than a
27、 measure to avoid harsher punitive actions taken by the importing country.Import licenseAn import license is a permit for import,which can be independent or combined with quotas.Product standardMany non-tariff trade barriers of ingenious new ones are constantly being developed to restrict trade.Some
28、 are technical standards,such as antipollution regulations that require automobiles to meet certain exhaust emission standards.Others may be ostensibly be introduced for reasons of health,safety,sanitary or national security but are actually intended to restrict trade.Government Procurement PolicyTh
29、is policy requires that a specified percentage of purchases by a government be made from domestic firms rather than foreign firms.It can be a non-tariff barrier to imports,if the purchasing processes are biased against foreign products,as they often are.In many countries the governments buy relative
30、ly few imported products and instead they buy mostly.Chapter 2 Trade TermsAfter learning this unit,you will be able to:understand the nature and the role of trade terms know the major rules governing the use of trade terms provide a brief explanation of thirteen terms under the Incoterms2010compare
31、and contrast the use of FOB,CFR and CIF list the determining factors when choosing IncotermsChapter 2 Trade Terms Definition of International Terms FOB LONDON CIF JIUJIANGThe trade terms refer to using a brief English concept or abbreviation of English letters to indicate the formation of the unit p
32、rice and determine the responsibilities,expenses and risks borne by two parties as well as the time of the passing of the property in the goods.Definition of International TermsTrade terms are key elements of international contracts of sale,since they tell the parties what to do with respect to:Deli
33、very termscarriage of the goods from the seller to the buyer and division of costs and risks between the parties;Price termsstipulating what are included in the price the buyer paid to the seller,e.g.cost,freight,insurance,export and import clearance fees,etc;Delivery obligationswhat documents shoul
34、d the seller provide,e.g.bill of lading insurance policy,etc.The Role of Trade TermsThe objective of trade terms is to help the seller and the buyer to settle mentioned issues.Predefined trade terms have been developed in form of abbreviations which already allocate the obligations of seller and buy
35、er so that the parties do not need to consume much time for discussing the conditions in each issue.THE MOST INFLUENTIAL TRADE CONVENTIONS1、Warsaw-Oxford Rules(W.O.Rules)1932 华沙牛津公约2、Revised American Foreign Trade Definitions 1941 1941美国对外贸易定义修订本 3、International Rules For the Interpretation of Trade
36、 Terms国际贸易术语解释通则 It has been amended and modernized in 1953,1967,1980,1990,2000 and 2010.2010年通则年通则 四组术语四组术语(共共11种种)Group EDepartureEXW-Ex works(named place)All modes of transport including multimodalGroup FMain Carriage UnpaidFCA-Free Carrier(named place)DittoFAS-Free Alongside Ship(named port of s
37、hipment)Sea and inland waterway transport onlyFOB-Free On Board(named port of shipment)DittoGroup CMain Carriage PaidCFRCost and Freight(named port of destination)DittoCIFCost,Insurance and Freight(named port of destination)DittoCPTCarriage Paid To(named place of destination)All modes of transport i
38、ncluding multimodalCIPCarriage and Insurance Paid To(named place of destination)DittoGroup DArrivalDATDelivered at Terminal(named terminal at port or place of destination)DittoDAPDelivered at Place(named place of destination)DittoDDPDelivered Duty Paid(named place of destination)DittoDifference betw
39、een Incoterms 2000 and Incoterms 2010 The newly published 2010 version takes into account issues The newly published 2010 version takes into account issues such as developments in cargo security and the need to such as developments in cargo security and the need to replace paper documents with elect
40、ronic ones.It made replace paper documents with electronic ones.It made several important changes to the previous version,such as a several important changes to the previous version,such as a reduction in the number of terms to 11 from 13.The DAF,reduction in the number of terms to 11 from 13.The DA
41、F,DES,DEQ,and DDU designations have been eliminated,DES,DEQ,and DDU designations have been eliminated,while two new terms,Delivered at Terminal(DAT)and while two new terms,Delivered at Terminal(DAT)and Delivered at Place(DAP),have been added.INCOTERMS Delivered at Place(DAP),have been added.INCOTERM
42、S 2010 also attempt to better take into account the roles cargo 2010 also attempt to better take into account the roles cargo security and electronic data interchange now play in security and electronic data interchange now play in international trade.international trade.A Brief Explanation of the T
43、erms in Incoterms 2010A Brief Explanation of the Terms in Incoterms 2010 Explanations of Group EEXW EX WORKS(named place of delivery)The term means that the seller delivers when he places the goods at the disposal of the buyer at the sellers premises or another named place(i.e.works,factory,warehous
44、e,etc.)not cleared for export and not loaded on any collecting vehicle.The Sellers only responsibility is to make the goods available at the Sellers premises.The Buyer bears full costs and risks of moving the goods from there to destination.So this term represents the minimum obligation for the sell
45、er.Under EXW term it is not guaranteed that the goods will be exported.It should not be used when the buyer cannot carry out the export formalities directly or indirectly.The buyer may keep the goods in the exporting country and re-sell to a third party.Explanations of Group FFCA FREE CARRIER(named
46、place of delivery)“Free Carrier”means that the seller delivers the goods to the carrier or another person nominated by the buyer at the sellers premises or another named place.The parties are well advised to specify as clearly as possible the point within the named place of delivery,as the risk pass
47、es to the buyer at that point.If the parties intend to deliver the goods at the sellers premises,they should identify the address of those premises as the named place of delivery.If,on the other hand,the parties intend the goods to be delivered at another place,they must identify a different specifi
48、c place of delivery.FCA requires the seller to clear the goods for export,where applicable.However,the seller has no obligation to clear the goods for import,pay any import duty or carry out any import customs formalities.FASFREE ALONGSIDE SHIP(named port of shipment)The term FAS means that the sell
49、er delivers when the goods are placed alongside the vessel nominated by the buyer at the named port of shipment.The risk of loss of or damage to the goods passes when the goods are alongside the ship,and the buyer bears all costs from that moment onwards.The parties are well advised to specify as cl
50、early as possible the loading point at the named port of shipment,as the costs and risks to that point are for the account of the seller and these costs and associated handling charges may vary according to the practice of the port.Where the goods are in containers,it is typical for the seller to ha