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1、英文semantics来自希腊语semantikos，意思是siginificant(有意义)。是研究语言意义的科学。词的意义和句子意义.20世纪60年代以前，语言学家只注重研究词的意义，忽略了句子意义。研究语言单位的意义，尤其是词语和句子的意义。Whatissemantics?第1页/共39页Semantics-the study of the meaning of linguistic units,words and sentences in particular.Meaning is central to the study of communication.What is meanin
2、g?-Scholars under different scientific backgrounds have different understandings of language meaning.第2页/共39页Philosophersaremainlyinterestedintherelationbetweenlinguisticexpressions,suchasthewordsofalanguage,andpersons,things,andeventsintheworldtowhichthesewordsrefer.Withinthedomainoflinguistics,sem
3、anticsismainlyconcernedwiththeanalysisofmeaningofwords,phrases,orsentencesandsometimeswiththemeaningofutterancesindiscourseorthemeaningofawholetext.第3页/共39页Leechs classification of meanings 1.Conceptual meaningLogical,cognitive,or denotative contentAssociative meaning2.Connotative meaningWhat is com
4、municated by virtue of what language refer to.3.Social meaningWhat is communicated of the social circumstances of language use.4.Affective meaningWhat is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer5.Reflective meaningWhat is communicated through association with another sense of
5、 the same expression6.Collocative meaningWhat is communicated through association with words which tends to occur in the environment of another word.7.Thematic meaning What is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis第4页/共39页Connotationsarerelativelyuns
6、table.Theyvaryconsiderablyaccordingtosociety,historicalperiod,andtheexperienceoftheindividual.e.g.capitalismTheconnotativemeaningcanbethesame/differentindifferentlanguagesorcultures.e.g.fox,machineBUT:dragon,dog,elephant(White Elephant)ASK:WhatdoeswhiteelephantmeaninEnglish?第5页/共39页denotationandconn
7、otationDenotationisthepartofmeaningofawordorphrasethatrelatesittophenomenaintherealworldorinafictionalorpossibleworld 将词或片语同现实世界或虚构或可能世界里的现象联系起来的那部分意义Connotationreferstotheadditionalmeaningsthatawordorphrasehasbeyonditscentralmeaning(denotation).Thesemeaningsshowpeoplesemotionsandattitudes.词与片语的基本意义
8、之外的意义。表示人们对词或片语所指称的人或事物所怀有的情感或态度第6页/共39页2)Social/stylisticmeaning社会/文体意义apieceoflanguageconveysaboutthesocialcircumstancesoflanguageuse.传达的关于语言使用的社会环境的意义Manywordshavesocialorstylisticfeaturesthatmakethemappropriateforcertaincontextssteed(poetic)residence(formal)horse(general)abode(poetic)nag(slang)h
9、ome(general)gee-gee(babylanguage)domicile(veryformal,official)第7页/共39页3)Affectivemeaning情感意义Affectivemeaningindicatesthespeakersfeelingsorattitudestowardsthepersonorthinginquestion.关于说话人或作者感情，态度方面的意义famous/notorious,black/nigger,slender/skinny,determined/pigheaded,statesman/politician,confidence/com
10、placency.Itisobviousthatthefirstwordineachpairisappreciatorywhilethesecondisderogatory.purrwordsorsnarlwords第8页/共39页4)Reflectedmeaning反射意义whatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithanothersenseofthesameexpression.通过联系同一表达式的其他意思所传达的意义themeaningwhicharisesincasesofmultipleconceptualmeaning,whenonesenseof
11、awordissostrongthatitformspartofourresponsetoanothersense.Example:wordshavingataboomeaning,suchasgay,第9页/共39页5)Collocativemeaning搭配意义Itreferstotheassociationsawordacquiresonaccountofitsmutualexpectancywithsomeotherwordswhichtendtooccurinitsenvironment.通过联想词语的常用搭配而传达的意义。pretty and handsomeprettygirl,
12、woman,flower,etc.handsomeboy,man,car,vessel,etc.cowsmaywander,butmaynot stroll;onetrembles with fear,butquiver with excitement.第10页/共39页Thematicmeaning主题意义whatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichthemessageisorganizedintermsoforderandemphasis.通过由顺序和重音组织信息的方式所传达的意义e.g.:(1)Heisfamiliartome.(2)Imfamiliarwithhi
13、m.a.Amaniswaitinginthehall.b.Theresamanwaitinginthehall.a.WhatIneedisaticket.b.AticketiswhatIneed.第11页/共39页Majorsenserelation意义关系 Synonymy同义关系Synonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.oe.g.buy and purchase o world and universe o brotherly and f
14、raternal Note:absoluteorcompletesynonymsarerare,forallthesynonymsdependoncontexttheyappear.(styleformal&informal)第12页/共39页nDialectalsynonyms方言同义词-synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects,e.g.autumn-fall,biscuit-cracker,petrol gasolinenStylisticsynonyms文体同义词-synonymsdifferinginstyle,e.g.kid,child,offs
15、pring;start,begin,commence;nSynonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning,在情感或评价意义方面存在差异的同义词-accomplice,nCollocationalsynonyms搭配同义词e.g.accuseof,chargewith,rebukefor;nSemanticallydifferentsynonyms(inrangeandintensityinmeaning),e.g.want,wish,desire,存在语义差异的同义词第13页/共39页Antonymy反义关系Gradableantonyms
16、等级反义词-thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,e.g.old-young,tall-short,（程度之差）a.gradabilityprettygood-lookingplainugly衣服小合身衣服大b.Foreachpair,thetermforahigherdegreeservesasacoverterm(unmarked)howold/tallishe?*howyoung/shortishe?那条河有多长宽深？*那条河有多短窄浅？第14页/共39页Complementaryantonyms互补反义词-t
17、hedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother,e.g.boy-girl,single-married,NotABandNotBAe.g.male&female alive&dead躺着起来 错对第15页/共39页converseantonyms对立反义词 relationalopposites关系反义词,对换关系 exhibitsthereversaloftherelationshipbetweenthetwoitems,e.g.husband-wife,father-son,doctor-patient,buy-sell,
18、let-rent,employer-employee,give-receive,above-below,Thistypeofantonymyistypicallyseeninreciprocalsocialroles,kinshiprelations,temporalandspatialrelations.第16页/共39页Homonymy同音异义现象,同形异义现象Lexicalitemswhichhavethesamephonologicaland/orspellingform,butdifferinmeaningarecalledhomonymsHomograghs同形异音异义词-iden
19、ticalinspellingbutdifferinsoundandmeaning,e.g.tear(n.)-tear(v.),lead(n.)-lead(v.),Homophones同音异义/形词-identicalinsoundbutdifferinsoundandmeaning,e.g.rain-reign,night/knight,Full/Completehomonym完全同音异义词-whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,e.g.ball,bank,watch,scale,fast,bat.Polysemy一词多义关系refer
20、stothephenomenonthatthesamewordmayhaveasetofdifferentmeanings.指同一个词具有几个密切相关的意义 e.g.face,hand,blanket第17页/共39页Hyponymy上下义关系thesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Superordinate:thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaning.Hyponyms:thewordwhichismorespecificinmeaning.Co-hyponym
21、s:hyponymsofthesamesuperordinate.第18页/共39页Superordinate:flowerHyponyms:rose,tulip,lily,chrysanthemum,peony,narcissus,Superordinate:furnitureHyponyms:bed,table,desk,dresser,wardrobe,sofa,第19页/共39页 Sentence meaning 第20页/共39页Senserelationsbetweensentences 1.XissynonymouswithY(Synonymyorparaphrase)2.Xis
22、inconsistentwithY(Inconsistencyorcontradiction)3.XentailsY(Entailment)4.XpresupposesY(Presupposition)5.Xisacontradiction6.Xissemanticallyanomalous第21页/共39页XissynonymouswithY同义句关系X:He was a bachelor all his life.Y:He never got married all his life.X:The boy killed the cat.Y:The cat was killed by the
23、boy.IfXistrue,Yistrue;ifXisfalse,Yisfalse.第22页/共39页XisinconsistentwithY对立句关系X:He is single.Y:He has a wife.X:This is my first visit to Beijing.Y:I have been to Beijing twice.IfXistrue,Yisfalse;ifXisfalse,Yistrue.第23页/共39页XentailsY语义蕴含X:John talked to a mother.Y:John married a woman.X:Marry has been
24、to Beijing.Y:Marry has been to China.Entailmentisarelationofinclusion.IfXentailsY,thenthemeaningofXisincludedinY.IfXistrue,Yisnecessarilytrue;ifYisfalse,Xisfalse.第24页/共39页蕴含是以语句间的真值关系(truthrelations)为裁定条件。假如A句为真，那么B句必为真，我们就可以说A句蕴含B句。而假如B句为假，那么A句也肯定为假。A.Theanarchistassassinatedtheemperor.B.Theemperor
25、died.第25页/共39页XpresupposesY语义先设X:His bike needs repairing.Y:He has a bike.Paul has given up smoking.Paul once smoked.IfXistrue,Ymustbetrue;IfXisfalse,Yisstilltrue.第26页/共39页不可否定性是界定先设与其他隐形语义差异的主要依据。Johnmanagedtoseehissharebeforethemarketcrashed.Johntriedtoseehissharebeforethemarketcrashed.Johndidntma
26、nagedtosellhissharebeforethemarketcrashed.第27页/共39页Xisacontradiction矛盾关系*My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.*The orphans parents are pretty well-off.WhenAiscontradiction,itisinvariablyfalse.第28页/共39页Xissemanticallyanomalous语义破格*The man is pregnant.*The table has bad intentions.*Sincerity s
27、hakes hands with the black apple.WhenAissemanticallyanomalous,itisabsurdinthesensethatitpresupposesacontradiction.第29页/共39页SemanticanalysisAnalysisofmeaningComponentialanalysisPredicationanalysis第30页/共39页Componentialanalysis成分分析法-awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning.Theapproachisbasedonthebeliefthatthemeanin
28、gofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.所有实词的意义都可以分解成一些“语义成分”，称作语义特征，语义标示（SemanticMarkers）、或义素（Sememes）Forexample,+/-MALE:bull/cow,ram/ewe,stallion/mare+/-ADULT:duck/duckling,pig/piglet,dog/puppy第31页/共39页Man:+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALEBoy:+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALEWoman
29、:+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALEGirl:+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALEman:womanboy:girlman:boywoman:girl两词仅有一个义素之差，如果规定两个词语的义素之中除一个义素不同外其他义素均相同，该两词语即构成反义词，那么上述的对子便构成了四组反义词。思考：其他词语意义关系第32页/共39页DisadvantagesofComponentialanalysisPolysemouswords(wordshavingmorethanonemeaning)willhavedifferentsetsofsemanticcomp
30、onents,suchasmaninMan is mortal.Somecomponentsareseenasbinarytaxonomies.E.g.Thedistinctionofboy and manisdifferentfromthatofgirl and woman.Therearesomewordswhosesemanticcomponentsaredifficulttoascertain.E.g.Human,Adult,Male,arecalledmetalanguage(alanguageusedfortalkingaboutanotherlanguage.第33页/共39页P
31、redicationanalysis述谓结构分析(BritishG.Leech).1)Themeaningofasentenceisnottobeworkedoutbyaddingupallthemeaningsofitscomponentwords,e.g“The dog bites the man”issemanticallydifferentfrom“The man bites the dog”thoughtheircomponentsareexactlythesame.2)There are two aspects to sentence meaning:grammaticalmean
32、ingandsemanticmeaning,e.g.*Green clouds are sleeping furiously.*Sincerity shook hands with the black apple.Whetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyrulescalledselectionalrestrictions.第34页/共39页Proposition命题-theabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.指一个句子所表达的基本意义Apropositionconsistsofargument(s
33、)andpredication.Anargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelementsinasentence.Apredicationissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.第35页/共39页Accordingtothenumberofargumentscontainedinapredication,wemayclassifythepredica
34、tionsintothefollowingtypes:One-placepredication:John isillJOHN(BEILL)Two-placepredication:Children like sweets.CHILDREN,SWEET(LIKE)Three-placepredication:JohngaveMaryabookJOHN(SEND)MARYBOOKNo-placepredication:It is hot.(BEHOT)第36页/共39页Tom smokes.TOM(SMOKE)The tree grows well.TREE(GROW)The kids like apples.KIDS(LIKE)APPLEI sent him a letter.I(SEND)HIMLETTER第37页/共39页命题是对句子的理论抽象，不含句式变体（如将肯定句演变为否定句、疑问句等）和信息结构变体（如把一般句式转变成强调句或分裂句式），不涉及语态、时、体、冠词等语法范畴。Hejumps.Heisjumping.Hewilljump.Hehasbeenjumping.Didhejump?HE(JUMP)第38页/共39页感谢您的观看！第39页/共39页