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1、Chapter oneIntroduction一、定义1.语言学 LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学 General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言 languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语
2、言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。4.识别特征 Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。Arbitrariness 任意性Productivity 多产性Duality 双重性Displacement 移位性Cultural transmission文化传递arbitrarinessThere is no l
3、ogical connection between meanings and sounds.P.Sthe arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have anunlimited source of expressionsProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.DualityLanguage is a system,which c
4、onsists of two sets of structures,or two levels.DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis,but we have to be taught and learned the details of any languagesystem.this
5、showed that language is culturally transmitted.not by instinct.animals are born with the capacity toproduce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力 CompetenceCompetence is the ideal users knowledge of the rules of hislanguage.6.语言运用 performancePerformance is the actual realization of this
6、knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。7.历时语言学 Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time.a diachronic study of language is a historical study,which studies thehistorical development of language over a period of time.8.共时语言学 Synchronical linguisticsThe study
7、of a given language at a given time.9.语言 langueThe abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.言语 paroleThe realization of langue in actual use.11.规定性 PrescriptiveIt aims to lay down rules for”correct”behavior,to tell people what they should say and what should not say.
8、12.描述性 DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.二、知识点1.language is not an isolated phenomenon,its a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by humanbeings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。2.几种观点和现象的提出者：瑞士语言学家 F.de Saussure F.de Sauss
9、ure:Langue和 parole 的区别U.S.A linguist N.Chomsky美国语言学家 N.Chomskyin1950 针对 Saussures langue&parole提出 Competence 和 performance曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家Sapir-language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communication ideas,emotions and desires bymeans of voluntarily produced symbols.Hall-language is t
10、he institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habituallyused oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.Chomsky-from now on I will consider language to be a set of sentences,each finite in length and constructed out ofa finite set of elements.U.S.A Linguist Charles Hockett美
11、国语言学家 Charles Hockett提出了语言的识别特征 design features3.the word language preceded by the zero-article,it implies that linguistics studies not any particular language.Language 一词前不加冠词说明语言学家不只研究一种特定的语言。4.in order to discover the nature of the underlying language system,what the linguists has to do first if
12、to studylanguage facts.5.language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facts,so its hardly possible for the linguistics to deal withit all at once.判断题6.Frist drew the attention of the linguists were the sounds used in languages.最先引起语言学家注意的是语言的发音。三、问答题1.what are major branches of linguist
13、ics?what does each study?Phonetics-its defined as the study of the phonic medium of language,its concerned with all the sounds that occurin the worlds languages.Phonology-the study of sounds systemsthe inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and thepatterns into which they fall.Morp
14、hology-Its a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which wordsare formed.Syntax-its a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language.Semantics-Its simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.Pragmatics-the study of mea
15、ning in context of words.Sociolinguisticsthe study of language with reference to society.Psycholinguistics-the study of language with reference to the working of the mind.Applied linguistics-the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.2.why do we say langu
16、age is arbitrary?Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the sounds that people use and theobjects to which these sounds refer.The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary natureof language
17、,its only our tacit agreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound upin the utterance.A typical example to illustrate the arbitrariness of language is a rose by any other name would smell as sweet.3.what makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?Mo
18、dern linguistics is descriptive,its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language date.现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。traditional grammar is prescriptive.it is based on high written language.传统语法是规定性的，研究高级书面语。4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic?whyModern li
19、nguistics is mainly synchronic,focusing on the present-day language.unless the various states of alanguage are successfully studied,it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究，否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。5.which enjoys priority in moder
20、n linguistics,speech or writings?Speech enjoys for the following reasons:Speech precedes writing in terms of evolution.A large amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing.speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language.6.how is Saussures distinction between lan
21、gue and parole similar to Chomskys?Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use oflanguage.their purpose is to single out the language system for serious studyTwo linguists idea differ in that Saussure took a sociological view of language,Cho
22、msky looks at language from apsychological point of view,competence is a property of the mind of each individual.6.the distinction between langue and parole?langue is abstract,relatively stableparole is concrete,varies from person to person,from situation to situation.1/What is linguistics?什么是语言学？Li
23、nguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.It studies not any particular language,butlanguages in general.2/The scope of linguistics语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.(普通语言学)The study of sounds,which are used in linguistic communicati
24、on,is called phonetics.（语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.（音系学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.（形态学）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax（句法
25、学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics.（语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.（语用学）The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics.（社会语言学）The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics.（心理
26、语言学）The study of applications(as the recovery of speech ability)is generally known as applied linguistics.（应用语言学）But in a narrow sense,applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories tolanguage teaching and learning,especially the teaching of foreign and second la
27、nguage.Other related branches include anthropological linguistics,（人类语言学）neurological linguistics,（神经语言学）mathematical linguistics,（数字语言学）and computational linguistics.（计算机语言学）3/Some important distinctions in linguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写If a linguistic study describes an
28、d analyzes the language people actually use,it is said to be descriptive,if it aims tolay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say,it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar.Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern lin
29、guistics isdescriptive.The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use,whether it is“correct”ornot.Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study;the description of a language as it changesthrough time is a diac
30、hronic study.In modern linguistics,synchronic study is more important.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.Modern linguistics regards the spoken form oflanguage as primary,but not the written form.Reasons are:1.Speech precedes writing;2.There are stil
31、l manylanguages that have only the spoken form;3.In terms of function,the spoken language is used for a wider range ofpurposes than the written,and carries a larger load of communication than the written.Langue and parole 语言和言语The Swiss linguist F.de Saussure made the distinction between langue and
32、parole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community,and parole refers tothe realization of langue in actual use.Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language forserious study.He believes what linguist
33、s should do is to abstract langue from parole,to discover the regularitiesgoverning the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用Proposed by American linguist N.Chomsky in the late 1950s.He defines competence as the ideal users kno
34、wledge of the rules of his language,and performance the actualrealization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.He believes the task of the linguists is to discover andspecify the language rules.Chapter Two Phonology一、定义1.宽式音标 Broad transcriptionThe transcription of speech sounds with letter
35、 symbols only.2.窄式音标 Narrow transcriptionThe transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.3.清音 VoicelessWhen the vocal cords are drawn wide apart,letting air go through without causing vibration,the sounds produced insuch a condition are called voiceless sounds.4.浊音 VoicingS
36、ounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds.5.元音 VowelThe sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through thevocal tract without obstruction are called vowels.6.辅音 ConsonantsThe sounds in the production of w
37、hich there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract arecalled consonants.7.音位 PhonemeThe basic unit in phonology,its a collection of distinctive phonetic features.8.音位变体 AllophonesDifferent phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allo
38、phones of that phoneme.9.音素 phoneA phonetic unit or segment.it doesnot necessarily distinguish meaning,its a speech sound we use when speaking alanguage.10.最小对立对 Minimal pairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place inthe strings,
39、the two words are said to form a minimal pair.11.超切分特征 SuprasegmentalThe phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features.the mainsuprasegmental features include stress,intonation and tone.12.互补分布 complementary distributionP35Two allophones of the same p
40、honeme are said to be in complementary distribution.13.语言的语音媒介 Phonic medium of languageThe limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studiesare the phonic medium of language.在人类交际中有着一定意义、对语言学研究来说举足轻重。有限的声音是语音媒介。14.爆破音 stopsWhen a obstructi
41、on created by the speech organs is total or complete,the speech sound produced with the obstructionreleased and the air passing out again is called a stop or a plosive.they areb p t d k g二、知识点1.statistics resulting from careful investigations show that there have been over5,000languages in the world
42、,abouttwo thirds of which have not had written form.2.of the two media of language,speech is more basic than writing.3.Phonetic组成Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学 longest established,mostly developedAuditoryphonetics听觉语音学Acousticphonetics声学语音学4.articulatoryApparatus/Organs of SpeechPharyngeal cavity 咽腔Or
43、al.口腔 greatest source of modification of air stream found hereNasal 鼻腔5.The tongue is the most flexible,responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other,the extreme back ofthe tongue can be raised towards the uvula and a speech sound can be thus produced as is used in Arabic and French.
44、6.Obstruction between the back of the tongue and the velar area results in the pronunciation ofk andg,thenarrowing of space between the hard palate and the front of the tongue leads to the soundj;the obstruction createdbetween the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the soundstandd.7
45、.nasal consonants:m/n/9.A Phone is a phonetic unit or segment.10.Sequential rules 例子If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word,the combination should obey the followingthree rules:the first phoneme must be/s/the second phoneme must be/p/or/t/or/k/the third phoneme must be
46、/l/or/r/or/w11.English has four basic types of intonation:Falling tone;Rising tone;Fall-rise tone;Rise-fall tone三、问答题1.what are the three branches of phonetics?how do they contribute to the study of speech sound?Articulatory describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and h
47、ow they differ.Auditory-studies the physical properties of speech sounds,reaches the important conclusion that phonetic identity isonly a theoretical ideal.Acoustic-studies the physical properties of speech sounds,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer.发音语音学描述了我们的发音器官如何发出语音，以及这些语音为何有所不同
48、。听觉语音学研究语音的物理性质，得出了重要结论，即语音同一只是理论上的理想。声学语音学研究语音的物理性质，研究语音从说话者到听话者之间的传播方式。2.how are the English consonants classified?By place of articulation and By manner of articulation3.how do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study?who do you think will be more interested in thedifferent between
49、sayiandi,p andph,a phonetician or a philologist?why?语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么?Phonetics descriptionof all speech sounds and their find differences.Phonology description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguishmeaning.A phonetician would be more
50、 interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differences in meaning.4.whats a phone?how is it different from a phoneme?how are allophone s related to a phoneme?Phonea speech sound,a phonetic unit.Phoneme-a collection of abstract sound features,a phonological unit.Allophones-actu