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1、合作学习在大学英语写作课堂中的应用The Application of Cooperative Learning in College English Writing Class1 .引言1.1 选题及意义1.2 研究目的1.3 论文结构.文献综述1.4 合作学习1.4.1 合作学习的概述1.4.2 合作学习的意义1.5 写作教学1.5.1 英语写作教学的重要性1.5.2 写作教学的存在问题1.5.3 合作学习下的写作教学的意义1.6 国内外研究状况3合作学习应用到写作教学中的理论3.1 认知理论3.2 人本理论3.3 交际理论4合作学习应用到写作教学中涉及的重要因素4.1 积极的相互依赖4.
2、2 促进性的互相影响4.3 个体的责任4.4 社交技能的开展4.5 小组的互评5合作学习应用到写作教学中的原那么5.1 客观原那么5.2 分组原那么5.3 评价原那么6合作学习应用到写作教学中的具体步骤6.1 写前准备阶段6.1.1 教师布置写作要求并将学生分组6.1.2 小组讨论、记录6.1.3 教师组织每组报告讨论结果6.2 合作写作阶段6.2.1 组内学生分工写作6.2.2 小组协商整合一稿6.3 写后修改阶段6.3.1 随机异组互改后返还二稿6.3.2 组内根据建议讨论修改出三稿6.3.3 教师批改Abstractsame time, biology, ecology and the
3、whole learning of organism which are put forward by evolutionism construct natural science foundations of Humanistic psychology.Humanistic psychology claims to study human nature, character, inner affection, responsibility, potential capacity, purpose, hobbies and personal experience and opposes to
4、paying attention to the tendency of the external behavior. It also indicates that the human body has the desire and potential of self realization and advocates teachers to accept advantages and disadvantages of students and to help students build up confidence and to develop their values in English
5、writing learning.3.3 Communication TheoryCommunicative competence is a term in linguistics which refers to a language users grammatical knowledge of syntax, morphology, phonology and the like, as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately. Hymes states that gaining c
6、ommunicative competence means acquiring both knowledge and capability. For language use with respect communicative competence not only involves the structures and forms of a language, but it also includes how the language is used effectively and appropriately in different contexts and situations. Co
7、mmunicative competence includes knowledge of the grammar and vocabulary, knowledge of rules of speaking, knowledge of how to use and respond to different types of speech acts and social conventions, and knowledge of how to use language appropriately. It is proved that traditional English education c
8、annot meet all the requirements of Hymes communicative competence, that is, students are still not acquiring the ability to communicate with others in English fluently and freely. However, group cooperative learning can make up the disadvantages of traditional teaching method; it encourages students
9、 to communicate and exchange ideas with others in English; it also helps students get to know each other better and contributes to the development of their interpersonal relationship.4 The Important Factors Involved into Cooperation LeaningThe five elements of cooperative learning are positive inter
10、dependence, individual accountability, face-to-face promotion interaction, interpersonal social skills and group processing. Teachers should be well emphasized and properly structured to the students so that they can make a full understanding on the core of the cooperative learning in writing class.
11、4.1 Positive InterdependencePositive interdependence the most crucial one means that the success of one student is linked with the success of their team members and maybe structured through mutual goals, joint rewards, shared resources, complementary roles, and a common team identity. The success of
12、 each member depends on the success of every member. It is this all for one, one for all feeling that leads group members to see that they share common goals, and to want to help each other. They work together for common goals, promote and support each other. One cannot succeed unless they coordinat
13、e ones efforts with the efforts of others to complete a task. It is the belief that students sink or swim together (Johnson et al., 1994). It should have common goals, rewards and rules. Students shall play different roles in the group to have their own responsibility and share materials.4.2 Face-to
14、 face InteractionFace-to-face interaction means that students interact directly with one another within groups, providing the opportunity for students to present, to discuss, to argue, to increase the amount of comprehensible language input and output. Students can help, share, encourage, and suppor
15、t each other to succeed through interaction within their groups. The cooperative learning may promote students positive emotion. Each student is essential and each persons efforts can be recognized and they would feel accepted and respected. Their self-respect and self-confidence will be confirmed a
16、nd enhanced greatly.4.3 Individual AccountabilityIndividual accountability means that the students are accountable for their own learning of the group. In a cooperative learning group, each student is held responsible for the other group members and for the success of the group. Students are encoura
17、ged to take part in the group work actively and make their own contributions to the successful outcome. To ensure that not just one or two group members dominate the group and, for any reason some others take a free ride, the teacher should promote individual accountability by keeping the group size
18、 small, giving an individual tests and randomly selecting one student from each group to explain the learning material or to present their group work to the entire class.4.4 Interpersonal Social SkillsInterpersonal skills are needed to work with others in social interaction. In cooperative learning,
19、 individual members need to develop both linguistic and social skills that facilitate teamwork, create trust and enhance communication, leadership, problem-solving and decision making in group interaction.4.5 Group ProcessGroup processing influences the effectiveness of cooperative learning regularl
20、y reflecting on how conducive to completing the tasks. It facilitates group acquisition and practice of social skills, reminds members of the group norms, and gives members feedback on their participation. Learners need to reflect on their group 9s learning experiences and group skills and the teach
21、er may provide feedback on some groups performance.To develop the feeling of positive interdependence within groups is crucial in implementing cooperative learning. With positive interdependence, students are more likely to encourage and support each other to succeed through group interaction. Besid
22、es, to ensure the learning activities go smoothly, the researcher should also bear in mind some related factors, like instructional techniques, task difficulty, time allocation, etc., and make adjustment to the principles of cooperative learningThe Principles of Cooperative learning in Writing Teach
23、ing4.6 Objectivity PrincipleCooperative learning provides numerous equivalent opportunities for peer-communication, group discussions to raise the achievements of all students (Johnson, Johnson and Holubec, 1998). In cooperative teaching students work in groups each of which consists of four or five
24、 members. In such small communities, students can get much more opportunities to express, to discuss, to communicate than study in a whole class. It breaks down the traditional classrooms procedure stereotype to be students centered.4.7 Group Division PrincipleSuccessful cooperative learning require
25、s effective work group highly structured where students work together to achieve common goals. Therefore groups should be delicately divided. Since heterogeneous group is strongly advocated in cooperative learning to be heterogeneous is the essential factor in dividing groups considering their score
26、s, gender, personality (extrovert or introvert) and diligence simultaneously. Usually cooperative learning groups should be as small as possible for easy interaction, so each group only holding four and five students to maintain the effectiveness of cooperation and interaction. According to Krashen
27、(1982), a frequent problem in cooperative learning groups is that one or two group members dominate the group, for whatever reason, impeding the participation of others. Therefore there are no group leaders in this study to make sure the equivalence of each group members. All the group members will
28、take their own responsibility to guarantee the group work proceeds smoothly.4.8 Evaluation PrincipleFirstly, teachers evaluation will make students have a more positive attitude and a higher motivation in writing excise. Cooperative learning experiences promote higher academic achievements than indi
29、vidually or competitively learning experiences. With peer support and the feeling of to be needed, students are highly motivated in mixed-level groups. Fear of failing or being foolish is a big threat which can be abated because students wok on the goal together. They put effort together and feel to
30、 be needed when achieving the common goals. And after that they can get their emotion feedback psychologically. So the teacher should provide suitable evaluation for students so that they can acquire more knowledge in the process of cooperative learning. Second, teachers evaluation encouraged studen
31、ts to discuss and apply what they have learned. In cooperative groups individuals know that they can get feedback and assistance, which can motivate them to continue to try, especially when peers encourage and support their contributions. Students are more motivated and active to interact with other
32、s and practice. Students can acquire important social skills, like expressing, listening, communication, negotiation, appreciation and self-reflection etc. In addition, students also would build relationships with others and acquire higher self-confidence and self-esteem. Thirdly, teachers evaluatio
33、n should give space fro students to think more about the writing topic.5 . Application of Cooperative learning in Practical TeachingPreparation Procedure of Writing5.1.1 Writing Requirements and Group DivisionA full preparation for the detailed information concerning cooperative learning was made an
34、d a formal training to all the students. Teachers should provide the writing requirements and the training to students. Teachers should prepare the suitable writing topic for students. And the content of group training includes cooperative learning principles, some communication skills, the cooperat
35、ive learning methods and its rationale.The teacher should give learners writing requirement before writing. And then divides the students into many groups. One of the strategies in group division is the heterogeneous learning group formation. When it comes to the heterogeneous group organization, so
36、me major factors were taken into account, including sex, academic achievement, academic abilities, attitude towards learning, personality (active or reserved). Therefore the basic information of the learners should be known very well by the teacher before the group formation according to the class o
37、bservation. The other training made the students clear of their individual accountability: group leader, group recorder, group spokesperson, information collector.In practical teaching, teacher assigned the groups with tasks according to a number of steps. Firstly, teacher made the task clear to eve
38、ry student. Secondly, teachers stressed the important principles used in the writing practice.5.1.2 Group Discussion and Group RecordGroup discussion and group record is warming up parts to concentrate students9 attention on the writing tasks and to help students generate writing ideas. It mainly fo
39、cuses on group discussion where students are required to use English as much as they can on organization of writing information, materials and outlines since discussion is crucial in English writing featured quite complex, productive, and creative and recursive. A clear introduction and writing tips
40、 would be made about the writing contents and then comes the group discussion. Students are encouraged to think, discuss, exchange views and share their ideas, in which students work cooperatively in groups to recall ideas, relate old and new knowledge, gather thoughts from different aspects and exp
41、lore a particular topic from many angles. Have opportunities to speak English, listen to English to practice and improve their English. They can draw out their writing outlines while internalizing English knowledge gradually by consistent English inputting and outputting.5.1.3 Reports and Results of
42、 DiscussionAfter every group has the results of discussion, the teacher should make the group leaders to summarize their outline of the writing topic which can provide a new thinking way for other groups. In this process, some teacher should pay attention to a phenomenon that one or more groups have
43、 the creative opinions on the writing topic. It has effective influence on students9 writing ideas. Or some teachers may find that almost all the groups have the same opinions to the topic. At this time, teachers should another way to inspire students by showing related pictures, videos, data inform
44、ation and so on. It is important in cooperative learning is to dig out the potential of students in process of discussion.5.2 Cooperative Writing5.2.1 Writing with Other Students of GroupAfter listening to other groups writing opinions, students should begin to write with other student of group, in
45、this part students needed to write their own compositions individually and after writing students within groups gave feedbacks to each other. The group members feedbacks were beneficial both to the giver and the taker.5.2.2 Completing the First DraftWith the reference of their group members feedback
46、 students need to revise their primary draft. Students would get a more profound and sophisticated thought about their draft via making suggestions, receiving opinions and discussion, hence they need to refine their writings. Normally the revision should be done for several times and when they finis
47、hed.5.3 Revision after Writing5.3.1 The Second DraftAfter Writing the first draft and revising inner group, it is important for students to exchange their drafts with members of other groups. In this part, teacher should advised students to exchange their drafts with students in other groups randoml
48、y. Thus, students can get the different way to revise their compositions. And it is also a good chance for them to learn from others and get the new opinions on the writing topic.5.3.2 The Third DraftSummarized the suggestion from members of different groups, students may have new way to revise thei
49、r compositions. According to others advices, students revise their own compositions. In the process of revising, the teachers can provide some help to them if they confused with the cooperative principles, writing requirement and so on.5.3.3 Teacher9s EvaluationThe last step is Teachers evaluation. Teachers immediate feedback and evaluation are given at the end of the group work. It should focus on both individual and gro