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1、Applied LinguisticsApplied LinguisticsWhat is Applied Linguistics?Language,Learning and TeachingGeneral TheoriesIndividual VariationsMajor Techniques and MethodsWhat is Applied Linguistics?It is an independent discipline in its own right.It is an interdisciplinary science.It is an applied science.It
2、 is an empirical science.Language,Learning and TeachingWhat is language?What is learning?What is teaching?What is the relationship between learning and teaching?General TheoriesHuman LearningSecond Language Acquisition:Differences between child and adult L2 learnersMajor L2 Learning TheoriesIndividu
3、al Variations（个体变异）Cognitive Variables(认知变量）of Language LearningAffective Variables(情感变量）of Language LearningSociocultural Variables of Language LearningMajor Techniques and Methods Contrastive Analysis:Comparing and Contrasting Two Languages Error Analysis:The Study of Learners Interlanguage（中介语）La
4、nguage TestingWhat is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols（任意的有声符号）used for human communication.What is learning?Learning is a relatively permanent change in a behavioral tendency and is the result of reinforced practice.What is teaching?Teaching cannot be defined apart from lear
5、ning.Teaching problems are not simply learning problems.They involve learning,developmental,motivational,and personality issues at the same time.What is the relationship between learning and teaching?Learning is the prerequisite and basis of teaching.Our understanding of how learners learn determine
6、s not only our philosophy of teaching but also our teaching style,our teaching approach,our methodology as well as our classroom techniques.The learner has an even greater role to play in the teaching-learning processHuman LearningPhilosophy and learning:1)the pessimistic view（悲观主义的观点）2)the hedonist
7、ic view（享乐主义的观点）3）the optimistic view（乐观主义的观点）4）the tabula-rasa or “blank-slate”view （白板论）Human LearningMajor learning theories:Behaviorism （行为主义）Cognitivism （认知主义）Constructivism （建构主义）Humanism (人本主义）BehaviorismSummary:Behaviorism is a world-view that operates on a principle of“stimulus-response（刺激反
8、应）.”All behaviors are caused by external stimuli.All behaviors can be explained without the need to consider internal mental states or consciousness of the learner.According to this view,a learner is essentially passive,responding to environmental stimuli.Cognitivism Summary:The cognitivist paradigm
9、 essentially argues that the“black box”of the mind should be opened and understood.The learner is viewed as an information processor（信息处理器）(like a computer).Originators and important contributors:Merrill,Reigeluth,Briggs,Wager,Piaget,Bruner(moving toward cognitive constructivism),Constructivism Summ
10、ary:Constructivism as a paradigm or worldview states that learning is an active,constructive process.The learner is an information constructor.People actively construct or create their own subjective representations of objective reality.New information is linked to prior knowledge,thus mental repres
11、entations are subjective.HumanismSummary:Humanism is a paradigm/philosophy/pedagogical approach that believes learning is viewed as a personal act to realize ones potential.Key proponents:Abraham Maslow,Carl Rogers,Malcolm KnowlesKey terms:self-actualization（自我实现）,teacher as facilitator（促进者）,affect（
12、情感）Second Language Acquisition:Differences between child and adult L2 learnersMajor L2 Learning TheoriesDifferences between child and adult L2 learnersIt is the general belief among people in recent years that when one starts to learn a second language,the younger,the better.That is to say,the child
13、ren are better learners of a second language than the adults.However,after examining the investigations of child-adult differences in second language learning in long-term and short-term studies,Krahen summarizes the findings as follows:Adults proceed through early stages of syntactic and morphologi
14、cal（句法和词法）development faster than children(where time and exposure are held constant)Older children acquire faster than younger children again in early stages of morphological and syntactic development(where time and exposure are held constant).Acquirers who begin natural exposure to second language
15、s during childhood generally achieve higher levels of second language proficiency than those beginning as adults.In other words,adults and older children in general initially acquire the second language faster than young children.Major L2 Learning Theories Interlanguage theory The monitor theoryInte
16、rlanguage theory1.BackgroundThe behaviourist assumptions concerning language learning looked upon the language learners performance as“inadequate approximations（近似）of the target language norms”(Sridhar 1980/81:228).2.What is interlanguage?The term“interlanguage”was first used by L.Selinker to refer
17、to“attempted meaningful performance”in a second language.According to him,“meaningful performance”refers to“the situation where an adult attempts to express meanings,which he may already have in a language which he is in the process of learning”Characteristics of Interlanguagea.unique (individualize
18、d)b.systematic c.simplified d.dynamic(The process of learning is a continuum（连续体）involving successive restructuring and of the internal hybrid（混合）system and constant addition,deletion,and revision of the rules,which is why it is referred to as interlanguage continuum)The monitor theory（监控理论）The acqu
19、isition-learning hypothesis（习得假设）The monitor hypothesisThe natural order hypothesisThe input hypothesisThe affective filter hypothesis（情感过滤假设）Cognitive Variables of Language LearningTypes of learningStrategies of learningStyles of learningTypes of learningSignal learning（信号学习）Stimulus-response（刺激反应）
20、learningChaining（连锁学习）Verbal association（词语的联想）Multiple discrimination（多样辨别学习）Concept learning（概念学习）Principle learning（原理学习）Problem-solving（解决问题）Strategies of learningThree broad types of learning strategies:Meta-cognitive strategies（元认知策略）Cognitive strategies（认知策略）Social-affective strategies（社会情感策略
21、）Common strategies of L2 learnersStrategies employed by good language learnersStyles of learningField independence vs.field dependence（场独立与场依存）Reflectivity vs.impulsivity （沉思型与冲动型）Broad vs.narrow category width（宽范畴与窄范畴）Affective Variables of Language LearningAttitudes（态度）Motivation（动机）Personality（个性
22、）Humanist approaches to personalitySociocultural Variables of Language Learning Language,thought and cultureAttitudes towards other culturesAcculturation（文化适应）-learning a second cultureContrastive Analysis:Comparing and Contrasting Two LanguagesWhat is contrastive analysis(CA)?Theoretical bases and basic assumptionThree versions of the contrastive analysis hypothesis（对比分析假设）Error Analysis and Language TestingWhat is error analysis(EA)?What is a test?Requirements of a good testTypes of language testInterpreting test results