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1、认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目Lexicon主讲人主讲人 钱钱 军军Chapter 3认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目3.1 What is word?3.1.1 Three senses of“word”3.1.2 Identification of words3.1.3 Classification of words3.2 The formation of word3.2.1 Morpheme and morpholo
2、gy3.2.2 Types of morphemes3.2.3 Inflection and word formation3.2.4 Sememe vs.morpheme,and phoneme vs.morpheme3.3 Lexical change3.3.1 Lexical change proper3.3.2 Morpho-syntactical change3.3.3 Semantic change3.3.4 Phonological change3.3.5 Orthographic change认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重
3、视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目A unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers,whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.A vague definition.Three senses are involved in defining“word”,none of which is satisfactory to cope with all the situations.3.1.1 Three senses of“word”(1
4、)A physically definable unit:a cluster of sound segments or writing letters between two pauses or blanks,e.g.Phonological:/It is5wQndEful/Orthographic:It is wonderful.Three words are recognized.However,in casual speech or writing,it often becomes:Phonological:/Its5wQndEful/Orthographic:Its wonderful
5、.Are they two words or three?3.1 What is word认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目(2)Word both as a general term and as a specific term When one is faced with a set of nouns,such as boy and boys or a set of verbs,such as check,checks,checked,and checking,they are recognized as
6、two words and four words respectively.e.g.Word 1 “write”Word 1:write Word 2:writes Word 3:wrote Word 4:writing Word 5:written Word 2 “fat”fat fatter fattest So WORD may be used both as a general term(then fat,fatter,and fattest are just one word)and as specific items(then fat,fatter,and fattest are
7、three words).认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目(3)A grammatical unit:clause complex clause phrase/word group word morphemeThe Word rank is located between Morpheme and Phrase.A word,in this sense,is then a grammatical unit,just like morpheme or clause complex.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，
8、才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目3.1.2 Identification of wordsStability:stable linguistic units.chairman,but not*manchairRelative uninterruptibility:though we recognize three components in the word disappointment:dis(#)appoint(#)ment,we cannot pause or add another component in between,as
9、in *dis interest appoint ment.But we can add another word between words:Paul,(John)and Mary.A minimum free form:the smallest unit that can constitute a complete utterance by itself.e.g.Is Jane coming tonight?Possibly.Hi.Wonderful.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目3.1.3 Class
10、ification of words(1)(1)Variable vs.Invariable Words:Variable words:the same word may have different grammatical forms but part of the word remains relatively constant.e.g.follow mat follows mats following followedInvariable words:They do not have inflective endings,such as since,when,seldom,through
11、,etc.(2)Grammatical vs.Lexical Words:Grammatical/Function words:those which mainly work for constructing group,phrase,clause,clause complex,or even text are grammatical words,such as conjunctions,prepositions,articles,pronouns.Lexical/Content words:those which mainly work for referring to substance,
12、action and quality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbs.(3)Closed-class vs.Open-class Words:Closed-class words:New members cannot normally be added,e.g.pronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,articles,auxiliaries.Open-class words:New members can be added,e.g.nouns,verbs,adjectives,and adverbs.认识到了贫困户贫困
13、的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目(4)Word class:known as Parts of Speech in traditional grammar.Noun,verb,adjective,adverb,preposition,pronoun,conjunction,interjection,article,etc.Some new terms in word class:i.Particle:infinitive to,negative not,subordinate units in phrasal verbs“ge
14、t by”,“look back”,etc.ii Auxiliary:do,haveiii.Pro-forms:substitutes for other terms.Pronoun:he,she,I,they,everyonePro-adjective:Your car is red.So is his.Pro-verb:He speaks English better than he did.Pro-adverb:He hopes to win and I hope so too.Pro-locative:He went there.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到
15、病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目 iv.Determiner:all the articles,demonstratives,and quantifiers that appear before the noun and its modifiers.As many as three determiners may be used in each case and there is a fixed order when there is more than one.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了
16、“精准扶贫”项目Predeterminers:all,both;half,one-third,three-quarters;double,twice,three times;such,what(exclamative),etc.Central determiners:the;this,these,that,those;my,our,your,his,her,its,their;which,what(relative),what(interrogative);a,another,some,any,no,either,neither;each,every;enough,much,more,most
17、,less;a few,a little),etc.Postdeterminers:next,last,past,additional;many,several,few,little;one,two,three;(a)dozen),etc.When different sub-classes of determiners occur together,they follow the order of pre-determiners+central determiners+post-determiners.（*five the all boy,all the five boys）*their a
18、ll trouble*five the all boys*all this boy*all both girls认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目一、一、术语解解释1.open-class words 浙江大学2007；武汉大学2007研【答案】Open-class words refer to words whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited and with the emergence of new ideas,inventions,a
19、nd so on;new expressions are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon.For example,nouns,verbs,and adjectives all belong to this class.2.determiners 中山大学2005研 【答案】Determiner is a word which is used with a noun,and which limits the meaning of the noun in some way.For example,in English,th
20、e determiner can be realized by a,this,her,some,etc.3.lexical word 武汉大学2005研,浙江大学2005研【答案】Lexical word.lexical words are also called content words,referring to those which have lexical meanings，that is，those which refer to substance,action and quality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and adverbs.英英 语语
21、 专专 业业 考考 研研 真真 题题 精精 选选认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目二、二、选择题1.Words like pronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,articles are items.北京第二外国语学院2003研 A.open-class B.closed-class C.neither open-class nor closed-class【答案】B2.In terms of the meaning expressed by words,they can be c
22、lassified into .大连外国语学院2008研 A.grammatical words and lexical words B.content words and lexical words C.grammatical words and function words【答案】A认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目三、填空三、填空题1.As the lexical words carry the main content of a language while the grammatical ones s
23、erve to link its different parts together,the lexical words are also known as content words and grammatical ones .中山大学2008研【答案】function words2.In traditional grammar,is the only word class which can function as a substitute for another item.中山大学2006研【答案】pronoun3.In terms of the meaning expressed by
24、words,they can be classified into words and words.南 开大学2007研【答案】lexical,grammatical认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目四、判断正四、判断正误1.Words are the most stable of all linguistic units in respect of their internal structure.大连外国语学院2008研【答案】T2.Pronouns,prepositions,conjunctions an
25、d articles are all open class items.清华大学2001研【答案】F3.Nouns,verbs,adjectives and many adverbs are content words.北京第二外国语学院2008研【答案】T认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目3.2.1 Morpheme and Morphology Morphology:the study of word-formation,or the internal structure of words,or the r
26、ules by which words are formed from smaller componentsmorphemes.Morphemes:The smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit thatcannot be further divided into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it islexical or gramm
27、atical.3.2 The formation of word认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目3.2.2 Types of morphemes(1)Free vs.Bound morphemes:Free morphemes:those that may constitute words by themselves,e.g.boy,girl,table,nation.Bound morphemes:those that cannot occur alone,e.g.-s,-ed,dis-,un-.(2)Ro
28、ot,affix and stem 1)Root:the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity,e.g.friend as in unfriendliness.Roots may be free:those that can stand by themselves,e.g.black+board;nation+-al;or bound:those that cannot stand by themselves,eg-ceive in receive,perceive,
29、conceive.both free and bound:sleep(/sli:p/)and child(/tFaild/)are free root morphemes,whereas slep-in the past tense form of sleep,i.e.slept,and child-in the plural form of child,namely children,cannot exist by themselves,and are hence bound.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项
30、目 2)Affix:the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.Normally divided into prefix(dis-,un-)suffix(-en,-ify)3)Stem:a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix may be added,e.g.friend+-s;write+-ing,possibility+-es.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除
31、。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目(3)Inflectional affix and derivational affix Inflection:grammatical endings,such as plural,tense,comparative,genitive,etc.e.g.drums,walks,taller,Marys.Derivation:combination of a base and an affix to form a new word,e.g.suburban,depart,online;slaver,teacher,workable.认识到了
32、贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目3.2.3 Inflection and Word Formation(1)Inflection INFLECTION indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes,such as number,person,initeness,aspect and case;and when inflectional affixes are added,the grammatical class of the tems(
33、to which they are attached)will not change.For instance,Nominal forms:boys,boys Verb forms:wants,wanted,wanting Adjective/adverb forms:smaller,smallest(2)Word formationi.Compound Two or more free roots combine to make a new word.Noun compounds:daybreak,playboy,haircut,windmill Verb compounds:brainst
34、orm,lipread,babysit Adjective compounds:gray-haired,insect-eating,dutyfree Preposition compounds:into,throughout认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目Endocentric&Exocentric(1)Endocentric:one element serves as the head,the relationship of“a kind of”;e.g.self-control:a kind of con
35、trol armchair:a kind of chair (2)Exocentric:there is no head,so not a relationship of“a kind of something”,e.g.scarecrow:not a kind of crow breakneck:not a kind of neckWritten forms of compounds Solid:blackboard,teapot,bodyguard Hyphenated:wedding-ring,wave-length Open:coffee table,washing machine F
36、ree variation:1)businessman,business-man,business man 2)winebottle,wine-bottle,wine bottle3)no one,no-one,noone 认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目ii DerivationDifferent from compounds,DERIVATION shows the relation between roots and affixes.e.g.un+conscious unconscious nation
37、+al national national+ize nationalize nationalize+ation nattonalizationIn contrast with inflections,derivations can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged.(a)Class-changing:NV:lengthen,hospitalize,discardNA:friendly,delightful,speechlessVN:worker,employee,inhabitantVA:a
38、cceptable,adorableAN:rapidness,rapidityAV:deafen,sweetenAdjAdv:exactly,quickly(b)Class-preserving:NN:nonsmoker,ex-wife,bookletVV:disobey,unfastenAA:grayish,irrelevant认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目3.2.4 Sememe vs.Morpheme,and Phoneme vs.Morpheme(1)(1)Sememe vs.morpheme SE
39、MEME:the smallest component of meaning.For example,the morpheme s has only one sememe:PLURALITY,meaning more than one.The relationship between sememe and morpheme:i.One morpheme vs.one sememe E.g.the morpheme less has just one sememe WITHOUT,as in fearless,careless,ceaseless,countless,doubtless,sham
40、eless,faceless,speechless.ii.One morpheme vs.more than one sememe E.g.The morpheme a-has three sememes,in arise and await,a functions to enhance the meaning of the original senses rise and wait;in awash and ablush,a-changes both the semantic and the grammatical categories of wash and blush;in atypic
41、al and asymmetry,a-means no or non.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目 iii.One sememe vs.more than one morpheme E.g.morphemes that indicate the sememe of no or non:e-in erostrate(of a kind of animal with no mouth),il in illicit,ne in neither,un in untidy.iv.Morphemes that hav
42、e no specific sememe E.g.en-,have no specific sememe,but may help change grammatical and semantic categories.e.g.enjoy differs from joy both in the sememe of quality vs.event and in the form of adjective vs.verb.v.Function changes in both sememe and morpheme without morpheme change the grammatical a
43、nd the semantic categories change only according to the context it occurs.E.g.run in run a company,its grammatical and semantic categories are verb and event;a short run,it is a noun and thing.This process of which involves no morpheme addition or variation,but the sememe of the morpheme is changed.
44、认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目(2)(2)Morpheme vs.phonemeMORPHOPHONOLOGY(MORPHONOLOGY)or MORPHOPHONEMICS(MORPHONEMICS):a branch of linguistics that refers to the analysis and classification of the phonological factors that affect the morpheme forms,and,correspondingly,the
45、morphological factors that affect the phoneme form.So,it studies the interrelationship between phonology and morphology.i.A single phoneme vs.a single morpheme A single phoneme may represent a single morpheme,but they are not identical.Consider the following examples,E.g.(a)boys/bCiz/(b)boys/bCiz/(c
46、)raise/reiz/In(a),the phoneme/z/represents the plural morpheme;in(b),it represents the morpheme that means the possessive case.However,in(c),it means nothing at all.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目 ii.A single morpheme vs.multiple phoneme Morphemes may also be represented
47、by phonological structures other than a single phoneme.E.g.Monophonemic dogs /dCz/Monosyllabic love+ly /lQv+li/Polysyllabic tobacco /tE+5bA+kEu/Thus,the syllabic(phonological)structure of a word and its morphemic(morphological)structure do not necessarily correspond.E.g.tell十er /5tel+5E/big(g)+er /5
48、bi+E/认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目 iii.Allomorph The morpheme that expresses plurality in English:map maps /mAps/dog dogs /dCz/watch watches /wCtFiz/mouse mice /mais/ox oxen /5Cksn/tooth teeth /ti:W/sheep sheep /Fi:p/Plural sememe in English can be represented by the vo
49、iceless/s/,the voiced/z/,the vowel-consonant structure/iz/,the diphthong/ai/found in the regular form of/mais/,the nasal sound/n/in/5Cksn/,the long vowel/i:/in/ti:W/and the zero form/i:/of/Fi:p/and others.Each would be said to be an ALLOMORPH of the plural morpheme.认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才能开始对症下药，然后药到病除。近年来
50、国家对扶贫工作高度重视，已经展开了“精准扶贫”项目 iv.Morphemic conditions Morpheme shapes vary according to both phonological conditions and to the conditions of their own.(a)Phonologically conditioned The form or shape of morphemes may be conditioned by phonological factors.1)Assimilation:E.g.injustice imperfect inefficie