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1、-英语语言学English Linguistic-第 9 页Chapter 1 Introduction1. Linguistic and English LinguisticLinguistic 的目的 aims at developing a theorygeneral linguistic 一般语言学descriptive linguistic 描述性语言学general linguistic (一般语言学 ) 为 descriptive linguistic (描述性语言学) 提供了framework(框架), 这也就是为什么 general linguistic 能够被分析和被描述.
2、General linguistic and descriptive linguistic are complementary to each other (相互补充).English linguistic is a kind of descriptive linguistics.2.The nature of languages (语言的本质) 1. language is a system 2. language is symbolic 3. language is a system of vocal symbolsde Saussure 的理论 The system of languag
3、e is called langue1. language is a system the speakers speech is called parole Chomsky的理论 Competence is the speaker-hearers knowledge of his language Performance is the actual use of language in concrete situation 2. language is symbolic ( 语言是象征意义的)3. language is a system of vocal symbols ( 语言是一种声音符
4、号) 语言学侧重研究的是 speech 不是 written form Reason 1. Biologically (生物上来讲) 儿童学习说比学习读写早得多.2. Functionally (功能上来讲) 日常生活中口语使用比书面语频繁的多.3. Historically ( 历史而言) 口头语使用在书面语之前,当今世界有许多语言并没有 留 下 文 字 记录Language is arbitrary Language is creativeLanguage is double-structuredLanguage is changeableLanguage is arbitrary a l
5、inguistic symbol is composed of two things speech sound( form)形式 and the idea( meaning) 意义 Language is creativeLanguage is double-structured grammatically-meaningful and sound-meaningless 语法上的有意义,声音上的无意义.Language is changeableWhat is the nature of human language? In a short , it is a system of arbit
6、rary vocal symbols The unique features like creativity(创造力)duality of structure (结构的双重性) changeability(易变性)3.Scientific method (科学方法) 1. collecting data ( 收集数据)2.forming a hypothesis (提出假设)3.testing the hypothesis (验证假设)4.drawing conclusions (得出结论)An important principle of the scientific method Obje
7、ctivity 客观性 Three biases 三种偏见1. some languages are primitive and some languages are advanced有的语言是原始的有的语言是先进的.2. only the standard variety is the pure form of a language只有标准的语体才是纯正的语言3. change is not natural for living language and such a change is a sign of corruption and decay语言变化是不自然的变化,变化是衰败的现象.S
8、ources of data 资料的来源 Collecting data 是研究的首要工作. 假如这语言学家不懂那门语言,他可以找一个 informant ( 为语言学调查提供资料的当地人)Rules construction 语言描述的首要工作是 construct rules ( draw conclusion) 得出结论How does a linguist construct a rule?书本p15页中4. The goal of linguistics 语言学的目的establish a model of a native speakers competence 建立一种本族语言的
9、模式 literal model 具体模式 physical modelmodeltheoretical model 理论模式 conceptual model Eg. Which types does a model of the competence of a native speaker belong to? - theoretical model / conceptual model 理论模式两个特性explicitness 明确性 the rules of the langue the model contains are clearly defined 某一门语言的规则定义非常明确
10、generative 生成性 use a finite set of rules to generate an infinite number of sentences 用有限的规则创造无限的句子四种研究的方向Phonological 音位知识Morphological 词法知识Syntactic 句法知识Semantic 语义知识Phonological 音位知识 sound and sound patterns of his language 研究语音和语音模式Morphological 词法知识 how a word is formed 如何构词的模式Syntactic 句法知识 whe
11、ther a sentence is true or not 句子是否符合语法Semantic 语义知识 meaning of a language 语言的意义5. Sub-branch of linguistics 语言学的分支Phonetics 语音学Study speech sound 研究语音的科学Phonology 音系学Study sound system 研究语音体系的科学Phoneme音素Morphology 形态学Word formation and the internal structure of work 构词法和词的内部结构Morpheme词素Syntax 句法How
12、 word are combined to form phrases 单词如何构成短语How phrases are combined by rules to form sentence 短语如何构成句子PS rules T rulesSemantics 语义学The meaning of words and sentence单词和短语的意义6. The father of modern linguisticsSaussure 现代语言学之父 (瑞士人 come from Swiss)现代语言学开始于20世纪,但是发展迅速,有两大流派(two schools)Structure linguis
13、tics 结构语言学Transformational-generative Grammar 转换生成语法 TG-grammar为什么说Saussure是现代语言学的奠基人呢?1. A Course in General Linguistics” is the first real essay on linguistic theory 是第一本真正意义上的语言学专著.2. The distinctions between synchronic and diachronic, syntagmatic and paradigmatic, langue and parole. Show us a br
14、ief explanation of these basic and significant distinctions. 书中关于 共时研究和历时研究, 横向关系和纵向关系, langue 和parole的阐述很明了.4. A few theoretical distinctions introduced have become foundations of linguistic study and exerted great influence on the latter development of linguistics.其中的一些理论成为语言学的基础对后来的语言学发展影响很大.Chap
15、ter 2 phonetics 语音学定义 phonetics is known as the science that studies speech sounds of all human languageThree sub-branches 三个分支articulatory phonetics 发音语音学acoustic phonetic 声学语言学auditory phonetic 听觉语言学发音器官 articulators What is vocal tract?- The speech organs above the larynx from the vocal tract 喉以上
16、的器官称之为vocal tractConsonants and vowels 辅音和元音Consonant : is a speech sound where the airstream from the lungs is either completely blocked or partially blocked or where the opening is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction 气流完全封闭或部分封闭，或开口小并且有摩檫Vowels ： is a speech sound that the airstre
17、am from the lungs is not blocked in any way in the mouth or throat, and which is usually pronounced with vibration of the vocal cords. 气流不受阻碍，发音时声带一定振动。（两者同时具备）国际音标 The International Phonetic Alphabet为什么要求用国际音标1 The spelling of words is not a reliable means, a single letter may represent different s
18、ounds 一词多音2 Different letters or combinations of letters may represent a single sound 多音一词在国际音标中 72辅音 25元音描述辅音的四种方法1 The position f the soft plate（velum） 软腭的位置 2 The presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration 声带是否振动3 The place of articulation 发音部位4 The manner of articulation 发音方式根据position of t
19、he soft plate 可以分为 oral sound nasal sound根据 presence or absence of vocal-cord vibration 可以分为 voiceless sound 清音 voiced sound 浊音根据 place of articulation 可以分为1. bilabials 双唇音2.labiodentals 唇齿音3.dentals 舌齿音4.alveolars 齿龈音5.post-alveolars 后齿龈音6.alveo-palatals 齿龈腭音7.palatals 硬腭音8.velars 软腭音9.glottals 声门音
20、根据 Manner of articulation 可以分为1. stops plosives 破裂音 nasals 鼻音2. fricatives 摩擦音3. affricatives 破擦音4. liquids 流音5. glides 滑音/音渡 也称为 semi-vowels ( 半元音)描述元音的三种方法1. the state of the velum 软腭的位置2. the position of the tongue 舌头的位置3. the shapes of lips 嘴唇的位置Velum state 根据velum(软腭)是上还是下Tongue position 前中后 fr
21、ont-central-back 上中下 high-middle-low Lip rounding rounded vowels 圆唇元音 unrounded vowels 不圆唇元音diphthongs 复合元音,双元音 英语中有8个双元音.它们可以分为3组 centering 集中双元音diphthongs 复合元音,双元音 closing 合口双元音triphthongs 三重元音,三合元音 就是合口双元音 + Phonetic featuresphonetic features + value = feature specification语音特征+音值构成了语音特征的说明8种comm
22、on features 书本P43页Chapter 3 Phonology 音位学/音系学Different from English phonetics (英语语音学) , Phonology is not interested in the actual production of English sounds, but in abstract aspect: the function of sounds and their patterns of combinations.它通过对音位特征的描写把语言学单位与言语声音联系起来.Phoneme (音位)定义 : meaning-distin
23、guishing sounds are called phoneme 具有区别功能的音叫做 音位We often placed between / /. 我们经常用/ / 来标注Phoneme is defined as a minimal distinctive unit in the sound system of a language. 音位认为是 最小的区别性单位Minimal pairs and sets 最小对立体 / 最小对立集Minimal pairs 如何鉴别最小对立体呢? 1. they are different in meaning 意义不同2. they differ
24、 only in one sound segment 仅有一个语音不同3. the different sounds occur in the same position in stings 不同语音的位置相同如果同时符合其中两个要求,则它们就是 为 最小对立体( minimal pairs)如果同时符合三个要求都符合.它们就是 为 最小对立集( minimal sets)所以说minimal sets 肯定是 minimal pairs, 反之不成立 Phoneme and allophones 音位和音位变体.allophone(音位变体)定义 : are the realization
25、of a particular phonemeall allophone can be called phones (音子,单音)怎么样鉴别音位? How to identifying phonemes?environment and distribution 环境 和 分布environment 环境distribution 分布分布的方式contrastive distribution 对比分布 如果2个或更多的语音出现同样的环境,如一个语音代替其他语音引起单词意义的变化complementary distribution 互补分布 2个或者更多的语音永久不能出现在同一个环境free va
26、riation 自由变异 如果两个语音可以出现相同的环境而且可以相互替换不会引起单词意义的变化分布的原则和过程原则 P61过程 1. are they in contrastive distribution? 是否对比分布? 2. are they always in free variation? 是否自由变异? 3. are they in complementary distribution? 是否互补分布? 4. are they phonetically similar? 是否语音相似?Tone language 声调语音 meaning of word levelIntonatio
27、n language 语调语音 meaning at phrase level or sentence levelphonetic transcription 语音音标 (严氏音标)phonemic transcription 音位音标 (宽氏音标) 使用的范围更广phonological rules 语音规则语音规则包括了3种信息1, the class of sounds affected by the rule 表示出所用的语音类型2, the phonetic changes that are to occur 语音会发生什么样的变化3, the phonetic environmen
28、t in which the phonetic changes will take place 在什么样的语音 环境下会发生本章节是重点章节English phonology is concerned with what sounds can contrast meaning and how they are combined to form permissible sound sequences.Phoneme a minimal distinctive unit in the sound systemIt is abstract and thus not directly observab
29、le, its always realized by its allophonescontrastive distribution 对比分布 当两个音为对比分布时,他们是separate phonemescomplementary distribution 互补分布 当两个音为互补分布时,并且also phonetically similar, 他们是allophones of a phoneme.free variation 自由变异 当两个音always 自由变异时,他们是allophones of a phoneme.什么是切分特征?Distinctive feature which h
30、ave effects on one sound segment are called segmental feature什么是超切分?While those that exert influence on more than one sound segment are called suprasegmental feature简言之: Suprasegmental features are not individual phonemes themselves but additional features that are functioning together with phonemes
31、, in English ,stress and intonation(重音和音调) are suprasegmental features. Juncture is a potential one (连音是潜在的超切分)Phonetic transcription 语音音标Phonemic transcription 音位音标 Phonological rule consists of three components(1) segment affected(2) phonetic change (3) phonemic environmentChapter 4 Morphology 形态学
32、Words are regarded as minimal meaningful units at the grammatical levelMorphemes 词素 Morpheme is defined as a minimal meaningful unit in the grammatical system of a langue 强调 1. a minimal meaningful unit 2. the grammatical system区分词素 root morphemes 词根语素语义上来分 semantically affixes morphemes 词缀语素 free m
33、orphemes 自由语素结构上来分 structurally bound morphemes 粘着语素 lexical morphemes 词汇语素 free morpheme 自由语素 functional morphemes 功能语素All free morpheme are root. All affixes are bound morpheme.Phoneme (音位) minimal distinctive unit in sound system.Morpheme (语素) minimal meaningful units in the grammatical system of
34、 language.内部曲折词缀 inflectional affixes 1. serve to grammatical relations 如.时态,数词.2. 不会产生新词3. 不会导致词性的变化.派生词缀 derivational affixes 1. 会产生新词2. very often change 语法morphs (语子) are the realizations of morpheme in general.Allomorphs (词位变体) are the realizations of a particular morpheme.Morpheme ( 词素) minimal units in the grammatical system of a language.Phoneme( 音位) minimal distinctive unit in sound system of a language.Phones ( 音子 ) the realization of phoneme in general.Allomophone (音位变体 ) realizations of a particular phoneme.