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1、Chapter 2Definitions and classification of translationPrerequisites for translators What do we mean by translation?Taken literally,it can be given four meanings,according to concrete contexts:Translating(翻译过程翻译过程)：the process(to translate;the activity rather than the tangible object)A translation(译作
2、译作)：the product of the process of translating(i.e.the translated text)Translation(翻译翻译)：the abstract concept which encompasses both the process of translating and the product of that process Translator(译者译者)：翻译过程的执行者，译作：翻译过程的执行者，译作的制作者。的制作者。1.Definitions of Translation The field of Translation Studi
3、es was first defined by the American scholar,James Holmes,in his seminal paper,entitled the Name and Nature of Translation Studies,which was originally presented in the third International Congress of Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972.n nSince Holmes paper,Translation Studies has evolve
4、d to such an extent that it is really a perfect interdiscipline,interfacing with a whole host of other fields.The aim may still be to describe translation phenomena,and in some cases to establish general principles,but the methods of analysis are more varied and the cultural and ideological features
5、 of translation have become as prominent as linguistics.The following figure illustrates the breaths of contacts.nThe following is a Map of discipline interfacing with translation studies:n nThe richness of the field is also illustrated by areas The richness of the field is also illustrated by areas
6、 for research suggested by Williams and for research suggested by Williams and ChestermanChesterman ,which include:,which include:(1)Text analysis and translation(1)Text analysis and translation(2)Translation quality assessment(2)Translation quality assessment(3)Translation of literary and other gen
7、res(3)Translation of literary and other genres(4)Multi-media translation(audiovisual translation)(4)Multi-media translation(audiovisual translation)(5)Translation and technology(5)Translation and technology(6)Translation history(6)Translation history(7)Translation ethics(7)Translation ethics(8)Termi
8、nology and glossaries(8)Terminology and glossaries(9)The translation process(9)The translation process(10)Translator training(10)Translator training(11)The characteristics of the translation profession(11)The characteristics of the translation professionn nDefinitions of translationn nTranslation ca
9、n be roughly defined as a reproduction or recreation in one language of what is written or said in another language.Being a very complicated human activity,its whole picture is never easy to describe.Scholars with different academic backgrounds have attempted to define it from various perspectives.n
10、 n1.1 Linguistic Views on Translationn nTranslation theorists from the linguistic school conceive of translation as a linguistic activity and some believe that translation theory is a branch of linguistics,approaching the issues of translating primarily from the viewpoint of the linguistic differenc
11、es between source and target texts.n n*Translation may be defined as the replacement of textual material in one language(the source language)by equivalent textual material in another language(the target language).n n(Catford,1965:20).n n*Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language t
12、he closest natural equivalent of the source-language message,first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.n n(Nida&Taber,1969:12).n n*Translation theory derives from comparative linguistics,and within linguistics,it is mainly an aspect of semantics;all questions of semantics relate to tr
13、anslation theory.n n(Newmark,1982/1988:5).n n1.2 Cultural Views on Translationn nIn the cultural approach,translation is regarded not only as a transfer of linguistic signs,but also as a communication of cultures,i.e.translation is an intercultural communication;hence the terms of intercultural coop
14、eration,acculturation,and transculturation.n n*Translation is a process which occurs between cultures rather than simply between languages.(Shuttleworth&Cowie,1997:35).n n*A translator who uses a cultural approach is simply recognizing that each language contains elements which are derived from its
15、culture,that every text is anchored in a specific culture,and that conventions of text production and reception vary from culture to culture(Shuttleworth&Cowie，1997:35).n n*For truly successful translating,biculturalism is even more important than bilingualism,since words only have meanings in terms
16、 of the cultures in which they function.(Nida,2001:82).n n*翻译不仅涉及语言问题翻译不仅涉及语言问题翻译不仅涉及语言问题翻译不仅涉及语言问题,也涉及文化问题。译者也涉及文化问题。译者也涉及文化问题。译者也涉及文化问题。译者不仅要了解外国的文化不仅要了解外国的文化不仅要了解外国的文化不仅要了解外国的文化,还要深入了解自己民族还要深入了解自己民族还要深入了解自己民族还要深入了解自己民族的文化。不仅如此的文化。不仅如此的文化。不仅如此的文化。不仅如此,还要不断地把两种文化加以还要不断地把两种文化加以还要不断地把两种文化加以还要不断地把两种文化
17、加以比较比较比较比较,因为真正的对等应该是在各自文化中的含因为真正的对等应该是在各自文化中的含因为真正的对等应该是在各自文化中的含因为真正的对等应该是在各自文化中的含义、作用、范围、感情色彩、影响等等都是相当义、作用、范围、感情色彩、影响等等都是相当义、作用、范围、感情色彩、影响等等都是相当义、作用、范围、感情色彩、影响等等都是相当的。翻译者必须是一个真正意义的文化人。人们的。翻译者必须是一个真正意义的文化人。人们的。翻译者必须是一个真正意义的文化人。人们的。翻译者必须是一个真正意义的文化人。人们会说：他必须掌握两种语言；确实如此会说：他必须掌握两种语言；确实如此会说：他必须掌握两种语言；确实
18、如此会说：他必须掌握两种语言；确实如此,但是不但是不但是不但是不了解语言当中的社会文化了解语言当中的社会文化了解语言当中的社会文化了解语言当中的社会文化,谁也无法真正掌握语谁也无法真正掌握语谁也无法真正掌握语谁也无法真正掌握语言。言。言。言。n n（王佐良（王佐良（王佐良（王佐良,1989,1989）Translation is a cross-cultural activity.翻译是一种跨文化交际活动。语言与文翻译是一种跨文化交际活动。语言与文化的密切关系注定了翻译与文化的密切化的密切关系注定了翻译与文化的密切关系。翻译是把一种语言转换成另一种关系。翻译是把一种语言转换成另一种语言。不言而
19、喻，两种语言转换的过程语言。不言而喻，两种语言转换的过程中必然涉及到两种文化。我国著名学者中必然涉及到两种文化。我国著名学者王佐良王佐良教授在谈到文化与翻译的关系时教授在谈到文化与翻译的关系时曾指出：曾指出：“翻译工作者处理的是个别词，翻译工作者处理的是个别词，面对的则是两大片文化。面对的则是两大片文化。”n n1.3 Literary Views on Translationn nTranslators who hold this view believe that translation is an artistic recreation or a recreated art.Some m
20、odern Western scholars from the literary school take literary translation to be the manipulation or rewriting of the source texts.n n*文学翻译的任务是要把原作中包含的文学翻译的任务是要把原作中包含的一定社会生活的映象完好无损地从一一定社会生活的映象完好无损地从一种语言移注到另一种语言中种语言移注到另一种语言中,在翻译过在翻译过程中追求语言的艺术美程中追求语言的艺术美,再现原作的艺再现原作的艺术性。用术性。用茅盾茅盾的话说的话说,是是“使读者在读使读者在读译文的时
21、候能够像读原作时一样得到译文的时候能够像读原作时一样得到启发、感动和美的感受启发、感动和美的感受”。n n1.4 Semantic Views on Translationn nThis view focuses on the semantic equivalence between the two languages,as well expressed by Eugene Nida(1986):Translating means translating meaning.n nTranslation is rendering the meaning of a text into another
22、 language in the way that the author intended the text.n n (Newmark,1988:5).n nSemantic translation:the translator attempts,within the bare syntactic and semantic constraints of the target language,to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the author.(Newmark,1982:22).n n*In semantic translatio
23、n,greater attention is paid to rendering the authors original thought-processes in target language than to attempting to re-interpret source text in a way which the translator considers more appropriate for the target setting.(Shuttleworth&Cowie,1997:151).n n1.5 Functional Views on Translationn nFun
24、ctionalists believe that translation is a specific form of human action with a certain purpose,a kind of linguistic service provided to the society.Translators should take into account the needs of the client,the reader as well as the purpose or use of the translation.n nGerman translation theorist
25、Christiane Nord:Translation is the production of a functional target text maintaining a relationship with a given source text that is specified according to the intended or demanded function of the target text.n n*It is not the source text,or its effects on the source-text recipient,or the function
26、assigned to it by the author,that determines the translation process,but the prospective function or purpose of the target text as determined by the initiators,i.e.clients needs(Baker,2001:236).n n1.6 Communicative Views on Translation1.6 Communicative Views on Translationn nThis approach views tran
27、slation as a This approach views translation as a communicative process which takes place within a communicative process which takes place within a social context.social context.n n*Communicative translation:the translator*Communicative translation:the translator attempts to produce the same effect
28、on the target attempts to produce the same effect on the target language readers as was produced by the original language readers as was produced by the original on the source language readers on the source language readers(NewmarkNewmark,1982:22).1982:22).n n*Communicative translation is generally
29、oriented Communicative translation is generally oriented towards the needs of the target language reader or towards the needs of the target language reader or recipient.A translator who is translating recipient.A translator who is translating communicatively will treat source text as a communicative
30、ly will treat source text as a message rather than a mere string of linguistic message rather than a mere string of linguistic units,and will be concerned to preserve source units,and will be concerned to preserve source texts original function and to reproduce its effect texts original function and
31、 to reproduce its effect on the new audience on the new audience n n(ShuttleworthShuttleworth&Cowie,1997:21).&Cowie,1997:21).n nThe above views help us to understand the complex nature of translation.Since there are many factors which affect the translation process,translation is a complicated human
32、 activity.n nBy referring to these definitions,we can offer a definition of translation as follows:n nTranslation or translating is a communicative activity or dynamic process in which the translator makes great effort to thoroughly comprehend a written message or text in the source language and wor
33、ks very hard to achieve an adequate or an almost identical reproduction in the target language version of the written source language message or text.2 Classification of translation 2.1从译出语和译入语的角度来从译出语和译入语的角度来分类，翻译可分为本族语译为外分类，翻译可分为本族语译为外语外语译为本族语；语外语译为本族语；n n2.2 从涉及到的语言符号来分类从涉及到的语言符号来分类n nIn his semi
34、nal paper,On Linguistic Aspects of Translation,Jakobson makes a very important distinction between three types of written translation.n nn n根据语言学家罗曼根据语言学家罗曼.雅可布逊（雅可布逊（Roman Jakobson）论述，翻译可以分成三种）论述，翻译可以分成三种类型类型:语内翻译语内翻译（intralingual translation)语际翻译语际翻译(interlingual translation)符际翻译符际翻译(intersemiotic
35、 translation)(1)(1)Intralingual translation 语内翻译语内翻译:translation within the same language,which can involve rewording or paraphrase;an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs in the same language;是指同一语言中用一些语言符号解释另一是指同一语言中用一些语言符号解释另一些语言符号些语言符号.(2)Interlingual translation语际翻译：语际翻译：Trans
36、lation from one language to another;an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other languages.是指两种语言之间的翻译，即用另一种语言是指两种语言之间的翻译，即用另一种语言的语符来解释一种语言的语符，这就是人的语符来解释一种语言的语符，这就是人们通常所指的们通常所指的“翻译翻译”，如英汉翻译。，如英汉翻译。(3)Intersemiotic translation符际翻译：符际翻译：translation of the verbal sign by a non-verbal sign,f
37、or example music or image;an interpretation of verbal signs by means of nonverbal sign system or vice versa.是指通过是指通过非语言的符号系统解释语言符号，或用语言非语言的符号系统解释语言符号，或用语言符号解释非语言符号，如把语言符号用图画、符号解释非语言符号，如把语言符号用图画、手势、数学、电影或音乐来表示。手势、数学、电影或音乐来表示。n ne.g(1).原文：子曰：原文：子曰：“学而时习之，不亦乐学而时习之，不亦乐乎乎!有朋友自远方来，不亦乐乎有朋友自远方来，不亦乐乎!人不知而人不知
38、而不愠，不亦君子乎不愠，不亦君子乎!”n n语内翻译语内翻译:孔子说：“学了知识并且经常复习，不也是令人愉快的事吗？有志同道合的人从远方来，不也是值得高兴的事吗？别人不了解自己，但自己不恼怒，这不也是君子的风度吗？”n n语际翻译：语际翻译：译文译文1:理雅各理雅各译译:The Master said:“Is it not pleasant to learn with a constant perseverance and application?”Is it not pleasant to have friends coming from distant quarters?Is it not
39、 a man of complete virtue,who feels no discomposure though men may take no note of him?(Translated by James Legge)n n译文译文译文译文2 2：Arthur Waley(英国汉学家亚瑟英国汉学家亚瑟 威利威利)译译译译:The Master said:The Master said，To learn and at due To learn and at due times to repeat what one has learnttimes to repeat what one h
40、as learnt，Is that not Is that not after all a pleasure?That friends should come to after all a pleasure?That friends should come to one from afar,Is this not after all delightful?To one from afar,Is this not after all delightful?To remain remain unsouredunsoured even though ones merits are even thou
41、gh ones merits are unrecognized by others,Is that not after all what is unrecognized by others,Is that not after all what is expected of a gentleman?expected of a gentleman?n n3.王福林王福林译：Confucius said:“Isnt it a pleasure for one to learn and then constantly review and practise what he has already le
42、arned?Isnt it a pleasure for one to have like-minded people coming from faraway places?If others dont know him,he doesnt feel displeased.Isnt it a superior persons bearing?”n n4.赖波、夏玉和赖波、夏玉和译：译：Confucius said,“Is it not a pleasure after all to practice in due time what one has learnt?Is it not a del
43、ight after all to have friends come from afar？Is it not a gentleman after all who will not take offence when others fail to appreciate him?”n n5.潘富恩、温少霞潘富恩、温少霞译：译：The Master said,“Is it not pleasant to learn and to review constantly what one has learned?Is it not delightful to have friends coming af
44、ar?Is he not a superior man,who feels no discontent though others do not know him?”n n6.丁往道译：丁往道译：Confucius said,“Is it not a pleasure to learn and practise from time to time what is learned?Is it not a joy to see a friend who has come from a faraway place?Is it not gentlemanly to have no resentment
45、 when one is not properly understood?”n nE.g.(2)子子曰曰：“三三人人行行，必必有有我我师师焉焉。择择其其善善者者而而从从之之，其其不不善善者者而而改改之之。”n n语语内内翻翻译译：孔孔子子说说：“三三个个人人同同行行，其其中中便便一一定定有有值值得得我我学学习习的的人人。我我选选取取他他的的优优点点而而学学习习，用用他他的的那那些些缺缺点点而而反反躬躬自自问问，如如果果自自己己有有同同样样的的缺缺点点就改正。就改正。”六种译文：六种译文：n1.理雅各（理雅各（James Legge）译：）译：The Master said,“When I wa
46、lk along with two others,they may serve me as my teachers.I will select their good qualities and follow them,their bad qualities and avoid them.”n n2.Arthur Waley(英国汉学家亚瑟英国汉学家亚瑟 威威利利)译译：The Master said,Even when walking in a party of no more than three I can always be certain of learning from those
47、I am with.There will be good qualities that I can select for imitation and bad ones that will teach me what requires correction in myself.n3.王福林王福林译：译：Confucius said,“When I walk together with two others,they can surely serve as my teachers.Ill find out their merits so as to follow them and their de
48、merits so as to avoid them.”n4.赖波、夏玉和赖波、夏玉和译：译：Confucius said,“When walking in the company of other men,there must be one I can learn something from.I shall pick out his merits to follow and his shortcomings for reference to overcome my own.”n5.潘富恩、温少霞潘富恩、温少霞译：译：The Master said,“When three are walki
49、ng together,I am sure to find teachers among them.I will select their good qualities and follow them,their bad qualities and avoid them.”n6.丁往道丁往道译译：Confucius said,“Whenever I walk with two other men,I can always find teachers in them.I can lean from their good qualities,and correct those faults in
50、me which are like theirs.”nE.g.(3)原文原文：A:What does your watch say?nB:It says“five past three”.n n 点评点评点评点评 在这一对话中，在这一对话中，在这一对话中，在这一对话中，B B实际上是在迸行一种翻译，实际上是在迸行一种翻译，实际上是在迸行一种翻译，实际上是在迸行一种翻译，这种翻译叫做这种翻译叫做这种翻译叫做这种翻译叫做符际翻译符际翻译符际翻译符际翻译(intersemioticintersemiotic trans translationlation)，即语言同非语言符号之间的代码转换。当，即语