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1、Chapter 2Speech SoundsIntroductionAs human beings we are capable of making all kinds of sounds,but only some of these sounds have become units in the language system.We can analyze speech sounds from various perspectives and the two major areas of study are phonetics and phonology.Phonetics studies
2、how speech sounds are produced,transmitted,and perceived.Three main areas:Articulatory Phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds.Acoustic Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds.Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sou
3、nds.Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages,and to explain the variations that occur(Crystal,1997:162).In phonology we normally begin by analyzing an individual language,say E
4、nglish,in order to determine its phonological structure,i.e.which sound units are used and how they are put together.Then we compare the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use of sounds in them,and ultimately we aim to dis
5、cover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.2.1 How speech sounds are made2.1.1 Speech organsSpeech organs(vocal organs)(言语器官):those part of the human body involved in the production of speechPart of the body that are involved in the production of speech:the lungs（肺），the trache
6、a(气管),the throat（咽喉）,the nose and the mouthThe mouth:the tongue,the plate(腭)The throat:pharynx(upper)(咽),larynx(lower)(喉头)The vocal tract(声道):the pharynx,mouth,and noseThe mouth:the oral cavity(口腔)The nose:the nasal cavity(鼻腔)Vocal folds(vocal cords,vocal bands):a pair of structure that lies horizon
7、tally with their front ends joined together at the back of the Adams apple.The vocal folds are either(a)apart,(b)close together,or(c)totally closed.Voiceless(清音):the vocal folds are apart,the air can pass easily p,s,tVoiced(浊音):the vocal folds are close together,the airstream causes them to vibrate
8、against each other b,z,dGlottal stop(喉塞音):the vocal folds are totally closed,no air can pass between them Position of the vocal folds:voiceless发音器官的构造及其作用发音器官的构造及其作用世界上所有的声音都是物体振动产生的声波在世界上所有的声音都是物体振动产生的声波在介质中传递的结果，因此声音的产生离不开振介质中传递的结果，因此声音的产生离不开振动的动力、振动的源头和振动的共鸣腔。语音动的动力、振动的源头和振动的共鸣腔。语音说到底也是一种声音，因而也离不
9、开振动的动说到底也是一种声音，因而也离不开振动的动力、源头和共鸣腔，只不过语音是由人类的发力、源头和共鸣腔，只不过语音是由人类的发音器官各部分协同动作所产生的，研究语音的音器官各部分协同动作所产生的，研究语音的产生，就必须首先了解发音器官的构造和功能。产生，就必须首先了解发音器官的构造和功能。人类的发音器官可以分为三大部分：呼吸器官、人类的发音器官可以分为三大部分：呼吸器官、喉头声带与声腔（口腔、鼻腔与咽腔），我们喉头声带与声腔（口腔、鼻腔与咽腔），我们详细介绍各部分的构造和功能。详细介绍各部分的构造和功能。发音器官的构造及其作用发音器官的构造及其作用 1 1 呼吸器官呼吸器官 呼吸器官主要包
10、括肺、气管和支气管。肺部的呼吸器官主要包括肺、气管和支气管。肺部的收缩和扩张可以产生呼气和吸气的气流变化，收缩和扩张可以产生呼气和吸气的气流变化，这种气流变化不仅为人类的生存提供氧气和二这种气流变化不仅为人类的生存提供氧气和二氧化碳的交换，而且为语音的发出提供了振动氧化碳的交换，而且为语音的发出提供了振动的动力。世界上多数语言的语音利用呼气作为的动力。世界上多数语言的语音利用呼气作为动力，非洲有些语言还利用吸气发音。动力，非洲有些语言还利用吸气发音。发音器官的构造及其作用发音器官的构造及其作用2 2 喉头和声带喉头和声带 喉头由软骨构成，呈圆筒状，上接咽腔，下接气喉头由软骨构成，呈圆筒状，上接
11、咽腔，下接气管，喉头的外表就是喉结。喉头软骨构成的管，喉头的外表就是喉结。喉头软骨构成的 圆圆筒筒 中有一对声带，声带是两片富有弹性的唇性中有一对声带，声带是两片富有弹性的唇性肌肉，其前后两端都粘附在软骨上。两片声带之肌肉，其前后两端都粘附在软骨上。两片声带之间的空隙叫声门，声门又可以分为音门和气门两间的空隙叫声门，声门又可以分为音门和气门两部分。由于肌肉的松弛紧缩和软骨的开合回转，部分。由于肌肉的松弛紧缩和软骨的开合回转，声带可以放松或拉紧，声门可以打开和关闭，从声带可以放松或拉紧，声门可以打开和关闭，从而产生不同的气流状态。声带的两小片肌肉可以而产生不同的气流状态。声带的两小片肌肉可以在气
12、流的冲击下振动，这种振动产生了语音中的在气流的冲击下振动，这种振动产生了语音中的浊音。所以声带的主要作用是振动的源头之一浊音。所以声带的主要作用是振动的源头之一-浊音的音源。浊音的音源。发音器官的构造及其作用发音器官的构造及其作用3 声腔声腔 声腔包括口腔、鼻腔和咽腔三部分。声腔包括口腔、鼻腔和咽腔三部分。口腔可分为上下两个部分，上面部分包括上唇、口腔可分为上下两个部分，上面部分包括上唇、上齿、齿龈、硬腭、软腭和小舌。齿龈是上腭前上齿、齿龈、硬腭、软腭和小舌。齿龈是上腭前段凸出的部分，硬腭是齿龈之后口腔上壁坚硬的段凸出的部分，硬腭是齿龈之后口腔上壁坚硬的部分，软腭是硬腭后面的柔软部分。软腭后面
13、连部分，软腭是硬腭后面的柔软部分。软腭后面连接的是小舌，软腭与小舌可以上下移动。口腔的接的是小舌，软腭与小舌可以上下移动。口腔的下面部分包括下唇、下齿和舌头。舌头是口腔里下面部分包括下唇、下齿和舌头。舌头是口腔里最重要、最灵活的器官，它可以分为舌尖、舌叶、最重要、最灵活的器官，它可以分为舌尖、舌叶、舌面三部分。舌尖位于舌头的最前端，舌头自然舌面三部分。舌尖位于舌头的最前端，舌头自然平伸时，舌尖后面与齿龈相对的部分叫舌叶。舌平伸时，舌尖后面与齿龈相对的部分叫舌叶。舌叶之后的部分叫舌面，又可以分为前、中、后三叶之后的部分叫舌面，又可以分为前、中、后三部分。其中相对于硬腭的部分是舌面前和舌面中，部分
14、。其中相对于硬腭的部分是舌面前和舌面中，相对于软腭的部分是舌面后，舌面后又可以叫舌相对于软腭的部分是舌面后，舌面后又可以叫舌跟。跟。发音器官的构造及其作用发音器官的构造及其作用鼻腔位于口腔的上方，好像一个是楼上，一个是楼下，鼻腔位于口腔的上方，好像一个是楼上，一个是楼下，上腭就是楼板，而软腭带动小舌就像一扇活动的楼门。上腭就是楼板，而软腭带动小舌就像一扇活动的楼门。（解释：口音（解释：口音 鼻音鼻音 鼻化音）鼻化音）咽腔位于喉头的上面，是一个管状的三岔口，上通鼻腔，咽腔位于喉头的上面，是一个管状的三岔口，上通鼻腔，前通口腔，下通喉头和食道。前通口腔，下通喉头和食道。在上述各发音器官中，有些器官
15、如唇、舌、软腭、小舌、在上述各发音器官中，有些器官如唇、舌、软腭、小舌、声带等是能活动的，叫作主动发音器官；有些器官如上声带等是能活动的，叫作主动发音器官；有些器官如上齿、齿龈、硬腭等是不能活动的，叫作被动发音器官。齿、齿龈、硬腭等是不能活动的，叫作被动发音器官。我们发音的时候，常由主动发音器官向被动发音器官接我们发音的时候，常由主动发音器官向被动发音器官接触或靠近，让气流冲击产生振动而发音。触或靠近，让气流冲击产生振动而发音。声腔是人类最重要的发音器官，声腔中又以口腔及其中声腔是人类最重要的发音器官，声腔中又以口腔及其中的各种器官作用最大。的各种器官作用最大。2.1.2 The IPAThe
16、 International Phonetic Association(IPA)(标音法标音法)1897The International Phonetic Alphabet(the IPA chart)1888first versionThe latest version was revised in 1993 and updated twice in 1996 and 2005.In the IPA chart,the sound segments are grouped into CONSONANTS and VOWELS.The InternationalPhonetic Alphab
17、et(Revised to 2005)2.2 Consonants and Vowels元音和辅音 The sound segments are grouped into consonants and vowels.Consonants are produced by a closure in the vocal tract,or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.A vowel is produced without obstruction o
18、f the air so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose.The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.As there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels,the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the
19、 same lines.2.2.1 Consonants In the production of consonants at least two articulators are involved.For example,the initial sound in bad involves both lips and its final segment involves the blade(or the tip)of the tongue and the alveolar ridge.The categories of consonant,therefore,are established o
20、n the basis of several factors.The manner of articulation refers to the ways in which articulation can be accomplished:the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period;they may narrow the space considerably;or they may simply modify the shape of the tract by a
21、pproaching each other.Stop(or Plosive)Oral&NasalFricativeApproximantLateral TrillTap or FlapAffricate1)Stop(plosive)(塞音，爆破音塞音，爆破音):complete closure of the articulators involved p,b,t,d,k,g 2)Fricative(擦音擦音):close approximation of two articulators so that the airstream is partially obstructed f,v,s,z
22、,h3)Approximant(通音通音):an articulation in which one articulator is close to another,but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstream is producedw,r,j 5)Lateral(边音边音):the obstruction of the airstream is at a point along the center of the oral tract,with incomplet
23、e closure between one or both sides of the tongu and the roof of the mouth l6)Trill/roll(颤音颤音/卷舌音卷舌音)：an articulator is set vibrating by the airstream r7)Tap and flap(闪音闪音)8）Affricate(塞擦音塞擦音):involve more than one of these manners of articulation in that they consist of a stop followed immediately a
24、fterwards by a fricative at the same place of articulation.The place of articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made.Practically consonants may be produced at any place between the lips and the vocal folds.Eleven places of articulation are distinguished on the IPA chart:BilabialLabiode
25、ntalDentalAlveolarPostalveolarRetroflexPalatalVelarUvularPharyngealGlottal1)Bilabial(双唇音):made with the two lips2)Labiodental(唇齿音):made with the lower lip and the upper front teeth3)Dental(齿音):made by the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth4)Alveolar lvil,lviul(齿龈音):made with the tongue ti
26、p or blade and the alveolar ridge5)Postalveolar(后齿龈音):made with the tongue tip or the back of the alveolar ridge6)Retroflex(卷舌音):made with the tongue tip or blade curled back7)Palatal(腭音):made with the front of the tongue and the hard palate8)Velar(软腭音):made with the back of the tongue and the soft
27、palate9)Uvular英英ju:vjul美美juvjl(小舌音小舌音):made with the back of the tongue and the uvula10)Pharyngealfrindi:l(咽音咽音):made with the root of the tongue and the walls of the pharynx11)Glottal(声门音声门音):made with the two pieces of vocal folds pushed towards each other2.2.2 VowelsCardinal vowels(基本元音基本元音):Firs
28、t suggested by A.J.Ellis in 1844 a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined;provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.represent extreme points of a theoretical vowel spaceThus,the cardinal vowel diagram in the IPA is a set of hypothetical positions
29、 for vowels used as reference pointsbased on a combination of articulatory and auditory judgments,the front,center,and back of the tongue are distinguished,as are four levels of tongue height(the highest position,the lowest position and two intermediate levels).The system defines eight“primary”cardi
30、nal vowels:iea(unrounded)ou(rounded)Jones:An Outline of English Phonetics(1918)Black:IPARed:EnglishVowel glides(元音音渡）Pure/Monophthongmnuf vowels(纯元音或单元音):Vowels whose quality remains constant throughout the articulationVowel glides:Vowels where there is an audible change of qualityDiphthongdf,(双元音):
31、a single movement(way,tide,how,toy,toe)of tongue is involvedTriphthongtrif(三重元音):a double movement(wire,tower)of tongue2.2.3 The sounds of EnglishThe most common accent in the teaching of English:RECEIVED PRONUNCIATION(RP)(BBC English,Oxford English).The Kings/Queens EnglishIt originates historicall
32、y in the southeast of England and is spoken by the upper-middles and upper classes throughout England.In the USA,the widely accepted accent used is GENERAL AMERICAN(GA)English consonants Describe consonantsPlace of articulationManner of articulationVoicing Eg.p voiceless bilabial stop b voiced bilab
33、ial stop s voiceless alveolar fricative z voiced alveolar fricativeEnglish vowelsFour basic requirements for the description of vowels 1)the height of tongue raising(high,mid,low)2)the position of the highest part of the tongue(front,central,back)3)the length or tenseness of the vowel(tense vs.lax o
34、r long vs.short)4)lip-rounding(rounded vs.unrounded)We can now describe the English vowels in this way:high front tense unrounded vowel high back lax rounded vowel mid central lax unrounded vowel low back lax rounded vowel2.3 From phonetics to phonology2.3.1 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription
35、sSpeech is a continuous process,so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps.Rather,sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.For example,map,lamb.When such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved,we call the process c
36、oarticulation.If the sound becomes more like the following sound(lamb),it is known as anticipatory coarticulation(逆化协同发音).If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound(map),it is perseverative coarticulation(重复性协同发音).The former is more common than the latter.The fact that the vowel in l
37、amb has some quality of the following nasal is a phenomenon we call nasalization.To indicate that a vowel has been nasalized,we add a diacritic to the top of the symbol,as.By the same token,we can use these diacritics for recording other variations of the same sound.Take p for example,it is aspirate
38、d in peak and unaspirated in speak.This aspirated voiceless bilabial stop is thus indicated by the diacritic h,as ph,whereas the unaspirated counterpart is transcribed as p.For most purposes,however,it is not necessary to indicate such variations of a sound every time.When we use a simple set of sym
39、bols in our transcription,it is called a broad transcription.The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription.Both are phonetic transcriptions so we put both forms in square brackets .2.3.2 Phonemes 音位Phonology is not specifically concerned with
40、the physical properties of the speech production system.Phoneticians are concerned with how sounds differ in the way they are pronounced while phonologists are interested in the patterning of such sounds and the rules that underlie such variations.Crystal:Phonological analysis relies on the principl
41、e that certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phrase,whereas other sounds do not.Minimal pairs testPhonemes Minimal pairs(最小对立体最小对立体):Phonological analysis relies on the principle that certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word.e.g.t and d:tin/din,tie/die i:and i:beat/bi
42、t,bead/bidThese important units are called phonemes MINIMAL PAIR：Two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound(one phoneme)and which also differ in meaning.For example,the English words bear and pear are a minimal pair as they differ in meaning and in their initi
43、al phoneme/b/and/p/The phoneme theoryPhoneme:units of explicit sound contrast,built on the idea of contrastLanguages differ in the selection of contrastive sounds.In English,the distinction between aspirated ph and unaspirated p is not phonemic.By convention,phonemic transcriptions are placed betwee
44、n slant lines(/),while phonetic transcriptions are placed between square brackets().In phonetic terms,phonemic transcriptions represent the“broad”transcription 2.3.3 Allophones p,ph are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme/p/.Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the sa
45、me phoneme.In this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution because they never occur in the same context:p occurs after s while ph occurs in other places./p/p/s _ ph elsewhereThis phenomenon of variation in the pronunciation of phonemes in different positions is called alloph
46、ony or allophonic variation.Another example:the phoneme/l/It is pronounced differently in lead and deal.Velarization:clear l and dark l/_ V /V _Think about tell and telling!Some phones are in complementary distribution,but there is another restriction for phones to fall into the same phoneme.Phoneti
47、c similarity:the allophones of a phoneme must bear some phonetic resemblance.Sometimes a phoneme may also have free variants.Free variants and free variation:For example,the final consonant of cup may not be released by some speakers so there is no audible sound at the end of this word.In this case,
48、it is the same word pronounced in two different ways.The difference may be caused by dialect,habit,or individual preference,instead of any distribution rule.Free variation is also seen in regional differences.Either,direction2.4 Phonological processes and phonological rules 2.4.1 AssimilationNasaliz
49、ation,dentalization,and velarization are all instances of assimilation,a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound,we call it regressive assimilation.The converse process,in which a preceding sound
50、 is influencing a following sound,is known as progressive assimilation.English Fricative DevoicingThese changes exhibit PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES in which a TARGET or AFFECTED SEGMENT undergoes a structural change in certain ENVIRONMENTS or CONTEXTS.In each process the change is conditioned or triggere