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1、REFRAMINGManaaementReframing Organizations, Bolman and DealThe challenge of finding the right way to frame our world has always been difficult, but it has become overwhelming in the turbulent and complicated world of the late 20th and early 21st century.The aim of this book is to help managers and l
2、eaders enrich the ideas and approaches they bring to their work. Too often, psychic prisons prevent seeing old problems in a new light or finding more promising tools to work on perennial challenges. Effectiveness deteriorates when managers and leaders cannot reframe. When they dont know what to do,
3、 they do more of what they know.Our purpose in this book is to sort through the multiple voices competing for managers, attention. In the process, we have consolidated major schools of organizational thought into four perspectives. There are many ways to label such perspectives. We have chosen the l
4、abel frames. Frames are both windows on the world and lenses that bring the world into focus.Frames also becomes tools, each with its strengths and limitations. The wrong tool gets in the way. The right one makes the job easier. One or two tools may suffice for simple jobs but not for more complex u
5、ndertakings. Managers who master the hammer and expect all problems to behave like nails find organizational life confusing and frustrating. The wise manager, like a skilled carpenter or an experienced cook, will want a diverse collection of high-quality implements. Experienced managers also underst
6、and the difference between possessing a tool and knowing how to use it. Only experience and practice bring the sk川 and wisdom to use tools well.MarketinaDr. Zaltman a maverick marketing professor at the Harvard Business School.Citing prominent scholars of the human brain.Zaltman argues that consumer
7、s cant tell you what they think because they just dont know. Their deepest thoughts, the ones that account for their behavior in the marketplace, are unconscious. Not only that, he insists, those thoughts are primarily visual as well.Because we represent the outcomes of thoughts verbally, its easy t
8、o think that thought occurs in the form of words J he says. Thats just not the case.,Since he began ZMET nearly 10 years ago, Dr. Zaltman has completed more than 200 studies. Some are part of his own academic research and take place at his Mind of the Market Lab at Harvard. Many others, however, are
9、 conducted by his private consulting firm.for wealthy corporations like DuPont, General Motors, Reebok, and AT&T that are willing to cough up the rough $75,000 he charges for hi serves.Most social communication is nonverbal. Thoughts occur as images. Metaphors are central to cognition. Cognition is
10、grounded in embodied experience. Deep structures of thought can be accessed. Reason, emotion, and experience co-mingle. The mind is not the possession of the individual.PoliticsGeorge Lakoff, Dont Think of an Elephant, Preface: Reframing Is Social Change.Frames are mental structures that shape the w
11、ay we see the world. As a result, they shape the goals we seek, the plans we make, the way we act, and what counts as a good or bad outcome of our actions. In politics, our frames shape our social policies and the institutions we form to carry out policies. To change our frames is to change all of t
12、his. Reframing is social change.You cant see or hear frames. They are part of what cognitive scientists call the cognitive unconscious - structures in our brains that we cannot consciously access, but know by their consequences: the way we reason and what counts as common sense. We also know framesY
13、our words seem hollow.The sentence is without meaning.The idea is buried in terribly dense paragraphs.In examples like these it is far more difficult to see that there is anything hidden by the metaphor or even to see that there is a metaphor here at all. This is so much the conventional way of thin
14、king about language that it is sometimes hard to imagine that it might not fit reality. But if we look at what the CONDUIT metaphor entails, we can se some of the ways in which it masks aspects of the communicative process.First, the LINGUISTIC EXPRESSIONS ARE CONTAINERS FOR MEANINGS aspect of the C
15、ONDUIT metaphor entails that words and sentences have meanings in themselves, independent of any context or speaker. The MEANINGS ARE OBJECTS part of the metaphor, for example, entails that meanings have an existence independent of people and contexts. The part of the metaphor that says LINGUISTIC E
16、XPRESSSIONS ARE CONTAINERS FOR MEANING entails that words (and sentences have meanings, again independent of contexts and speakers. These metaphors are appropriate in many situations - those where context differences dont matter and where all the participants in the conversation understand the sente
17、nces in the same way. These two entailments are exemplified by sentences likeThe meaning is right there in the words,which, according to the CONDUIT metaphor, can correctly be said of any sentence. But there are many cases where context does matter. Here is a celebrated one recorded in actual conver
18、sation by Pamela Downing:Please sit in the apple-juice seat.In isolation this sentence has no meaning at all, since the expression “apple-juice seats not a conventional way of referring to any kind of object. But the sentence makes perfect sense in the context in which it was uttered. An overnight g
19、uest came down to breakfast. There were four place settings, three with orange juice and one with apple juice. It was clear what the apple-juice seat was. And even the next morning, when there was no apple juice, it was still clear which seat was the apple-juice seat.In addition to sentences that ha
20、ve no meaning without context, there are cases where a single sentence will mean different things to different people. Consider:We need new alternative sources of energy.This means something very different to the president of Mobil Oil from what it means to the president of Friends of the Earth. The
21、 meaning is not right there in the sentence - it matters a lot who is saying or listening to the sentence and what his social and political attitudes are. The CONDUIT metaphor does not fit bases where context is required to determine whether the sentence has any meaning at all and, if so, what meani
22、ng it has.These examples show that the metaphorical concepts we have looked at provide us with a partial understanding of what communication, argument, and time are and that, in doing this, they hide other aspects of these concepts. It is important to see that the metaphorical structuring involved h
23、ere is partial, not total. If it were total, one concept would actually be the other, not merely be understood in terms of it. For example, time isnt really money. If you spend your time trying to do something and it doesnt work, you cant get your time back. There are no time banks. I can give you a
24、 lot of time, but you cant give me back the same time, though you can give me back the same amount of time. And so on. Thus, part of a metaphorical concept does not and cannot fit.On the other hand, metaphorical concepts can be extended beyond the range of ordinary literal ways of thinking and talki
25、ng into the range of what is called figurative, poetic, colorful, or fanciful thought and language. Thus, if ideas are objects, we can dress them up in fancy clothes, juggle them, line them up nice and neat, etc. So when we say that a concept is structured by a metaphor we mean that it is partially
26、structured and that it can be extended in some ways but not others.Orientational MetaphorsSo far we have examined what we w川 call structural metaphors, cases where one concept is metaphorically structured in terms of another. But there is another kind of metaphorical concept, one that does not struc
27、ture one concept in terms of another but instead organizes a whole system of concepts with respect to one another. We will call these orientational metaphors, since most of them have to do with spatial orientation: up-down, in-out, front-back, on-off, deep-shallow, centralperipheral. These spatial o
28、rientations arise from the fact that we have bodies of the sort we have and that they function as they do in our physical environment. Orientation metaphors give a concept a spatial orientation: for example, HAPPY IS UP. The fact that the concept HAPPY is oriented UP leads to English expressions lik
29、e Tm feeling up today.through language. All words are defined relative to conceptual frames. When you hear a word, its frame (or collection of frames) is activated in your brain.Reframing is changing the way the public sees the world. It is changing what counts as common sense. Because language acti
30、vates frames, new language is required for new frames. Thinking differently requires speaking differently.Excerpts from Interview with Frank Luntz 11/1 /2006What are you measuring with the dial technology?Its like an X-ray that gets inside your head, and it picks out every single word, every single
31、phrase that you hear, and you know what works and what doesnt.The key to dial technology is that its immediate, it5s specific, and it5s anonymous.Its so immediate, it feels instantaneous.But it is, because politics is instantaneous. Politics is gut; commercials are gut.You think emotions are more re
32、velatory than the intellect for predicting these decisions?80% of our life is emotion, and only 20 percent is intellect. I am much more interested in how you feel than how you think.You believe language can change a paradigm? frame”I dont believe it - I know it.Who hired you?The Republican National
33、Committee hired me.Talk to me about the Healthy Forests Initiative of President Bush. Isnt calling is “Healthy Forests“ obfuscating the fact that it entails keeping the forests healthy with widespread logging?Yes, the Bush administration benefited from the phrase “healthy forest.”Do you think Republ
34、icans do this better than Democrats?That is brand new.it is not enough to have a superior policy, or it is not enough to have all the facts at your fingertips; it becomes essential that you be able to communicate that on a one-to-one basis, as individuals on a personal level rather than a philosophi
35、cal or ideological level.e.g. Estate tax” reframed as “Death tax.” “Tax reform55 reframed as “Tax relief., etc., etc., etc.Frames and “creative thinkingEdward de Bonos major techniquesCONCEPT FAN” Pick a product or service, a policy or process. What functions or purposes does it fulfill? (this is wh
36、at de Bono terms the concept”)Can you think of alternative ways of fulfilling the function or purpose? (this is to “fan out11)The logic of the Concept Fan is making the purpose of something explicit. Like, Why, exactly, are we doing this?The “how is a product or service, a policy or process. These a
37、re essentially solutions to WThe “why： the purpose(s) or function(s). Moreover, these can be framed as a problem or an opportunity.E.g., grades. I can think of at least six functions or purposes served by grades - ideal and otherwise.Once I think about each function, I can usually “fan out“ with one
38、 or more alternatives for each function.tPROVOCATION Yawn. Business as usual. Pick a product or service, apolicy or process. It doesnft have to be “a problem/1Say/think up something weird about it Move to an alternative.The logic of Provocation is to “reframe” taken-for-granted ideas, processes, etc
39、., in a striking or provocative way.First, pick an area of interest, then pick some taken-for-granted structures, processes, or functions.Then, “provoke” in any of the following ways:reversal negation exaggeration distortion wishful thinkingFinally, move” to alternatives by trying to1) extract a pri
40、nciple: Whafs the key here? Whafs the point?2) focus on differences: how does this differ or compare to what we are doing now?3) Just picture this happening! Imagine what this would be like!want to - positive aspects? opportunities?able to - implement: under what circumstances could this happen?Eg,
41、your life.Provoke (wishful thinking): Imagine that you are at your own funeral. Several people are speaking about you.What would you wish them to say?Move: Just picture this happening!E.g., the classroomProvoke (reversal: students teach the teacher.Move: ?RANDOM INPUTYoufre stuck, youre not coming u
42、p with any ways to solve a problem. Talk about the problem, then set it aside for a minute. Randomly pick a noun. List five to seven attributes. Now, compare your map with the problem to see if it sparks anything.The logic of Random Input is juxtaposing two contexts to reveal latent features, relati
43、onships, etc.Pick a problematic situation.Randomly pick a noun which people understand.List 5-8 aspects/attributes commonly associated with the noun. Juxtapose the problematic situation and the noun w/ attributes. Play with them to see if anything emerges.E.g” how do you convince your busy boss to a
44、ttend a two-day creative thinking workshop?Pick a noun “chestnut. List some attributes: soft inside, hard shell, Christmas, horses, fireplace, tree.Compare chestnut attributes to problem: hard shell, soft inside? Hmm!FRAMES, CREATIVITY, and SCIENCE“For Want of a Metaphor11 by Stephen Jay Gould(Its t
45、he early to mid-1700s. The microscope has been perfected, allowing scientists to view human eggs and sperm up close for the first time. But at that time, there were no ways to explain - to understand - how we developed from such things.)We would say today that Maupertuis*s basic insight was correct:
46、 complexity cannot arise from formless potential; something must exist in the egg and sperm. But we now hold a radically different concept of this something.H Where Maupertuis could not think beyond actual parts, we have discovered programmed instructions. Eggs and sperm do not carry parts themselve
47、s, but only coded instructions, written in DNA, to direct the building of a proper embryo.But how could Maupertuis have reached this elegant solution, for his century lacked analogs in thought and technology to imagine a process of abstraction from actual parts to programmed rules for their construc
48、tion. Programmed instructions were not part of the intellectual equipment of eighteenthcentury thinkers. Music boxes pointed in the right direction, but the first revolutionary invention based on programmed instructions, the Jacquard loom, was not introduced until the early 1800s. This automatic wea
49、ving device, with instructions on punched cards, directly inspired Hollerith*s later invention of data cards for census machines (later transmogrified to the famous IBM computer card- do not fold, spindle, or mutilate). How could Maupertuis imagine the correct solution to his dilemmaprogrammed instructions-in a century that had no player