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1、Earnings and Discrimination收入与歧视收入与歧视Chapter 19Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.Differences in Earnings in the U.S.Today当前美国的收入差距当前美国的收入差距uThe typical physician earns about$200,000 a year.普通医生一年赚到普通医生一年赚到20万美元左右。万美元左右。uThe typical police officer earns about$50,000
2、a year.普通警官一年赚到普通警官一年赚到5万美元左右。万美元左右。uThe typical farm worker earns about$20,000 a year.普通农业工人一年赚到普通农业工人一年赚到2万美元左右。万美元左右。Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.What causes earnings to vary so much?什么原因造成个人收入差距如此之大？什么原因造成个人收入差距如此之大？uWages are governed by labor supply and l
3、abor demand.工资由劳动供给与劳动需求决定。工资由劳动供给与劳动需求决定。uLabor demand reflects the marginal productivity of labor.劳动需求反映了劳动的边际生产率。劳动需求反映了劳动的边际生产率。Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.What causes earnings to vary so much?什么原因造成个人收入差距如此之大？什么原因造成个人收入差距如此之大？uIn equilibrium,each worker i
4、s paid the value of his or her marginal contribution to the economys production of goods and services.在均衡时，每个工人都得到了他对经济在均衡时，每个工人都得到了他对经济中物品与劳务生产的边际贡献的价值。中物品与劳务生产的边际贡献的价值。Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.Some Determinants of Equilibrium Wages决定均衡工资的若干因素决定均衡工资的若干因素uC
5、ompensating differentials 补偿性差别工资补偿性差别工资uHuman capital 人力资本人力资本uAbility,effort,and chance 能力、努力和机遇能力、努力和机遇uSignaling 信号信号uThe superstar phenomenon 超级明星现象超级明星现象Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.Compensating DifferentialsuCompensating differentials refer to difference
6、s in wages that arises from nonmonetary characteristics of different jobs.uCoal miners are paid more than others with similar levels of education.uNight shift workers are paid more than day shift workers.uProfessors are paid less than lawyers and doctors.Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyrigh
7、t 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.补偿性差别工资补偿性差别工资u补偿性差别工资补偿性差别工资 是指不同工作的非货币是指不同工作的非货币特性所引起的工资差别。特性所引起的工资差别。u煤矿工人得到的工资高于其他有相似教育水煤矿工人得到的工资高于其他有相似教育水平的工人。平的工人。u夜班工人的工资高于同类白班工人。夜班工人的工资高于同类白班工人。u教授的工资低于受教育时间大致相同的律师教授的工资低于受教育时间大致相同的律师和医生。和医生。Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.Human Ca
8、pital 人力资本人力资本uHuman capital is the accumulation of investments in people.人力资本人力资本对人的教育和在职培训对人的教育和在职培训投资的积累。投资的积累。uThe most important type of human capital is education.最主要的人力资本是教育。最主要的人力资本是教育。Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.Human Capital1.Education represents an
9、expenditure of resources at one point in time to raise productivity in the future.2.By the year 2000,a man with a college degree earned more than 89 percent more than without one.Women showed a 70 percent increase in earnings due to a college degree.Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 200
10、1 by Harcourt,Inc.人力资本人力资本u 教育代表着为了提高未来生产率而在教育代表着为了提高未来生产率而在某一时点的资源支出。某一时点的资源支出。u 2000年，一个有大学学位的男人的平均年，一个有大学学位的男人的平均收入比没有大学学位的男人多收入比没有大学学位的男人多89。对。对于妇女来说，上大学的报酬高出于妇女来说，上大学的报酬高出70。Table 1 Average Annual Earnings by Educational AttainmentCopyright2004 South-Western表表1.受受教育者的平均年收入教育者的平均年收入Copyright2004
11、 South-Western1980年年2000年年男人男人 高中，未上大学 36 430美元 36 770美元 大学毕业 52 492美元 69 421美元 大学水平的额外百分点 44 +89%妇女妇女 高中，未上大学 14 953美元 17 898美元 大学毕业 23 170美元 35 431美元 大学水平的额外百分点 55 +98%注释：收入数据根据通货膨胀进行了调整，并用2000年美元表示。Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.Why has the gap in earnings bet
12、ween skilled and unskilled workers risen in recent years?uInternational trade has altered the relative demand for skilled and unskilled labor.uChanges in technology have altered the relative demand for skilled and unskilled labor.Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.为什
13、么近年熟练工人与非熟练工人之间的为什么近年熟练工人与非熟练工人之间的收入差距扩大了呢？收入差距扩大了呢？u国际贸易改变了对熟练劳动与非熟练国际贸易改变了对熟练劳动与非熟练劳动的相对需求。劳动的相对需求。u技术变革改变了熟练劳动与非熟练劳技术变革改变了熟练劳动与非熟练劳动的相对需求。动的相对需求。Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.Ability,Effort,and ChancenNatural ability is important for workers in all occupation
14、s.nMany personal characteristics determine how productive workers are and,therefore,play a role in determining the wages they earn.Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.能力、努力和机遇能力、努力和机遇n对所有职业的工人来说，天赋能力对所有职业的工人来说，天赋能力都是重要的。都是重要的。n许多个人特点决定了工人的劳动生许多个人特点决定了工人的劳动生产率，因此这些特点在决
15、定工人所产率，因此这些特点在决定工人所挣得的工资水平上起着重要作用。挣得的工资水平上起着重要作用。Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.An Alternative View of Education:Signaling教育的另一种观点：信号教育的另一种观点：信号uFirms use educational attainment as a way of sorting between high-ability and low-ability workers.企业把教育状况作为区分高能力工人与低能力
16、工企业把教育状况作为区分高能力工人与低能力工人的一种方法。人的一种方法。uIt is rational for firms to interpret a college degree as a signal of ability.企业把大学学位解释为能力的企业把大学学位解释为能力的信号信号是合理的。是合理的。Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.The Superstar PhenomenonuSuperstars arise in markets that exhibit the followi
17、ng characteristics:uEvery customer in the market wants to enjoy the good supplied by the best producer.uThe good is produced with a technology that makes it possible for the best producer to supply every customer at a low cost.Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.超级明星现
18、象超级明星现象u超级明星超级明星 产生在有两个特点的市场上：产生在有两个特点的市场上：u市场上每位顾客都想享受最优生产者提供的市场上每位顾客都想享受最优生产者提供的物品。物品。u使最优生产者以低成本向每位顾客提供物品使最优生产者以低成本向每位顾客提供物品成为可能的是生产这种物品所用的技术。成为可能的是生产这种物品所用的技术。Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.Above-Equilibrium Wages:Minimum-Wage Laws,Unions,and Efficiency Wages
19、nWhy are some workers wages set above the level that brings supply and demand into equilibrium?Minimum-wage lawsMarket power of labor unionsEfficiency wagesHarcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.高于均衡工资高于均衡工资:最低工资法、工会和效率工资最低工资法、工会和效率工资n为什么一些工人的工资确定在高于使为什么一些工人的工资确定在高于使劳动供求
20、均衡的水平上？劳动供求均衡的水平上？最低工资法最低工资法工会的市场势力工会的市场势力效率工资效率工资Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.Above-Equilibrium Wages:Minimum-Wage Laws,Unions,and Efficiency Wages nUnionsA union is a worker association that bargains with employers over wages and working conditions.nStrikeA s
21、trike refers to the organized withdrawal of labor from a firm by a union.Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.高于均衡工资高于均衡工资:最低工资法、工会和效率工资最低工资法、工会和效率工资n工会工会工会工会 与雇主谈判工资和工作条件与雇主谈判工资和工作条件的工人协会。的工人协会。n罢工罢工罢工罢工工会有工会有 组织地从企业撤出劳组织地从企业撤出劳动。动。Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items
22、 copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.Above-Equilibrium Wages:Minimum-Wage Laws,Unions,and Efficiency Wages nEfficiency WagesThe theory of efficiency wages holds that a firm can find it profitable to pay high wages because doing so increases the productivity of its workers.High wages may:reduce worker tur
23、nover.increase worker effort.raise the quality of workers that apply for jobs at the firm.Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.高于均衡工资高于均衡工资:最低工资法、工会和效率工资最低工资法、工会和效率工资n效率工资效率工资效率工资效率工资 认为，企业会发现支付高工资认为，企业会发现支付高工资是有利的，因为这样做提高了工人的生产是有利的，因为这样做提高了工人的生产率。率。高工资会高工资会:减少工人的流动性；减
24、少工人的流动性；提高工人的努力程度；提高工人的努力程度；提高适应企业的工人素质。提高适应企业的工人素质。Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.The Economics of DiscriminationDiscrimination occurs when the marketplace offers different opportunities to similar individuals who differ only by race,ethnic group,sex,age,or othe
25、r personal characteristics.Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.歧视经济学歧视经济学当市场向那些仅仅是种族、宗教、性当市场向那些仅仅是种族、宗教、性别、年龄或其他个人特征不同的相似别、年龄或其他个人特征不同的相似个人提供了不同的机会时，个人提供了不同的机会时，就出现了就出现了歧视歧视。Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.The Economics of Discrimin
26、ation歧视经济学歧视经济学Although discrimination is an emotionally charged topic,economists try to study the topic objectively in order to separate myth from reality.虽然歧视是一个经常引起激烈争论的情绪虽然歧视是一个经常引起激烈争论的情绪化话题，但经济学家力图客观地研究这个化话题，但经济学家力图客观地研究这个题目，以便把假象与真实分开。题目，以便把假象与真实分开。Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyrig
27、ht 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.Measuring Labor-Market Discrimination劳动市场歧视的衡量劳动市场歧视的衡量Discrimination is often measured by looking at the average wages of different groups.常常通过观察不同群体的平均工资差别常常通过观察不同群体的平均工资差别来衡量劳动市场上的歧视程度。来衡量劳动市场上的歧视程度。Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.Measur
28、ing Labor-Market Discrimination劳动市场歧视的衡量劳动市场歧视的衡量Even in a labor market free of discrimination,different people have different wages.即使在一个没有歧视的劳动市场上，即使在一个没有歧视的劳动市场上，不同人的工资也不同。不同人的工资也不同。Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.Measuring Labor-Market Discrimination劳动市场歧视的衡量劳
29、动市场歧视的衡量People differ in the amount of human capital they have and in the kinds of work they are willing and able to do.人们拥有的人们拥有的人力资本人力资本量以及能够并愿意量以及能够并愿意从事的工作种类不同。从事的工作种类不同。Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.Measuring Labor-Market Discrimination劳动市场歧视的衡量劳动市场歧视的衡量Sim
30、ply observing differences in wages among broad groups white and black,men and women says little about the prevalence of discrimination.简单地观察不同群体简单地观察不同群体白人与黑人、男白人与黑人、男人与女人人与女人之间的工资差别并没有说明之间的工资差别并没有说明歧视的普遍性。歧视的普遍性。Table 2 Median Annual Earnings by Race and SexCopyright2004 South-WesternTable 2.不同不同种族
31、与性别的平均收入种族与性别的平均收入Copyright2004 South-Western男人男人 38 870美元美元 30 403美元美元 22女人女人 28 080美元美元 25 107美元美元 11女人工资低女人工资低 28 17（百分比）（百分比）注释：注释：2000年数据。年数据。白种人白种人 黑种人黑种人 黑种人收入低（百分比）黑种人收入低（百分比）Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.Measuring Labor-Market DiscriminationBecause the
32、differences in average wages among groups in part reflect differences in human capital and job characteristics,they do not by themselves say anything about how much discrimination there is in the labor market.Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.劳动市场歧视的衡量劳动市场歧视的衡量由于不同群
33、体之间平均工资的差别部分由于不同群体之间平均工资的差别部分反映了人力资本和工作特性的差别，这反映了人力资本和工作特性的差别，这些差别本身对劳动市场上有多大歧视并些差别本身对劳动市场上有多大歧视并没有说明什么。没有说明什么。Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.Discrimination by Employers 雇主的歧视行为雇主的歧视行为Firms that do not discriminate will have lower labor costs when they hire the e
34、mployees discriminated against.当不进行歧视的企业雇佣受歧视的雇员时，当不进行歧视的企业雇佣受歧视的雇员时，这些企业的劳动成本更低。这些企业的劳动成本更低。Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.Discrimination by Employers 雇主的歧视行为雇主的歧视行为Nondiscriminatory firms will tend to replace firms that discriminate.不进行歧视的企业取代了进行歧不进行歧视的企业取代了进行歧
35、视的企业。视的企业。Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.Discrimination by Employers uCompetitive markets tend to limit the impact of discrimination on wages.uFirms that do not discriminate will be more profitable than those firms that do discriminate.Harcourt,Inc.items and deri
36、ved items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.雇主的歧视行为雇主的歧视行为u竞争性市场倾向于限制歧视对工资竞争性市场倾向于限制歧视对工资的影响。的影响。u不进行歧视的企业将比进行歧视的不进行歧视的企业将比进行歧视的企业更具有赢利性。企业更具有赢利性。Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.Discrimination by Customers and GovernmentsAlthough the profit motive is a strong force a
37、cting to eliminate discriminatory wage differentials,there are limits to its corrective abilities.uCustomer preferencesuGovernment policiesHarcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.顾客与政府的歧视行为顾客与政府的歧视行为虽然利润动机是消除歧视性工资差虽然利润动机是消除歧视性工资差别的一种强大力量，但也存在着针别的一种强大力量，但也存在着针对这种力量的矫正能力的限制
38、。对这种力量的矫正能力的限制。u顾客偏好顾客偏好u政府政策政府政策Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.Discrimination by Customers and GovernmentsCustomer preferences:If customers have discriminatory preferences,a competitive market is consistent with a discriminatory wage differential.This will happe
39、n when customers are willing to pay to maintain the discriminatory practice.Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.顾客与政府的歧视行为顾客与政府的歧视行为顾客偏好顾客偏好:如果顾客有歧视偏好，竞争性企业就如果顾客有歧视偏好，竞争性企业就与歧视性工资差别相一致。与歧视性工资差别相一致。这种情况只有在顾客愿意为他们的歧这种情况只有在顾客愿意为他们的歧视性行为付出代价时才会发生。视性行为付出代价时才会发生。Harcourt,In
40、c.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.Discrimination by Customers and Governments顾客与政府的歧视行为顾客与政府的歧视行为Government policies:When the government mandates discriminatory practices or requires firms to discriminate,this may also lead to discriminatory wage differentials.政府政策：政府政策：当政府命令实
41、行歧视性作法或者当政府命令实行歧视性作法或者要求企业进行歧视时，将会导致歧视性工资要求企业进行歧视时，将会导致歧视性工资差别。差别。Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.The Debate Over Comparable Worth关于同工同酬的争论关于同工同酬的争论According to the doctrine of comparable worth,jobs deemed comparable should be paid the same wage.根据同工同酬学说，可以相比的工作应该
42、得根据同工同酬学说，可以相比的工作应该得到相同的工资。到相同的工资。Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.The Debate Over Comparable Worth关于同工同酬的争论关于同工同酬的争论Advocates of comparable worth want jobs to be rated according to a set of impartial criteria such as education,experience,responsibility,working con
43、ditions,and so on.同工同酬的支持者根据一套客观的标准同工同酬的支持者根据一套客观的标准教育、经验、责任、工作条件等等教育、经验、责任、工作条件等等来评来评价工作。价工作。Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.The Debate Over Comparable Worth关于同工同酬的争论关于同工同酬的争论Critics of comparable worth argue that a competitive market is the best mechanism for se
44、tting wages.同工同酬的批评者认为，竞争市场是同工同酬的批评者认为，竞争市场是决定工资的最好机制。决定工资的最好机制。Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.SummaryuWorkers earn different wages for many reasons.uTo some extent,wage differentials compensate workers for job attributes.uWorkers with more human capital get paid
45、 more than workers with less human capital.Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.小结小结u工人由于许多原因而赚到不同的工资。工人由于许多原因而赚到不同的工资。u在某种程度上，工资差别是对工人工在某种程度上，工资差别是对工人工作性质的补偿。作性质的补偿。u人力资本多的工人得到的工资高于人力资本多的工人得到的工资高于人力资本少的工人。人力资本少的工人。Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by
46、 Harcourt,Inc.Summary 小结小结uThe return to accumulating human capital is high and has increased over the past decade.累积的人力资本的收益是高的，而且在过去累积的人力资本的收益是高的，而且在过去的十年里一直在增加。的十年里一直在增加。uThere is much variation in earnings that cannot be explained by things economists can measure.有许多收入差别不能用经济学家可以衡量的有许多收入差别不能用经济学
47、家可以衡量的事情来解释。事情来解释。Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.SummaryuThe unexplained variation in earnings is largely attributable to natural ability,effort,and chance.uSome economists argue that more-educated workers earn higher wages because workers with high natural abili
48、ty use education as a way to signal their high ability to employers.Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.小结小结u收入中无法解释的变异主要归因于天收入中无法解释的变异主要归因于天赋能力、努力和机遇。赋能力、努力和机遇。u一些经济学家提出，受教育更多的人一些经济学家提出，受教育更多的人得到更高工资并不是因为教育提高了得到更高工资并不是因为教育提高了生产率，而是因为有更高天赋能力的生产率，而是因为有更高天赋能力的工人把教育作为向雇主
49、表示他们高能工人把教育作为向雇主表示他们高能力的信号。力的信号。Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.SummaryuWages are sometimes pushed above the equilibrium level because of minimum-wage laws,unions,and efficiency wages.uSome differences in earnings are attributable to discrimination on the basis of
50、 race,sex,or other factors.uWhen measuring the amount of discrimination,one must correct for differences in human capital and job characteristics.Harcourt,Inc.items and derived items copyright 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.小结小结u有时工资会高于使劳动供求平衡的水有时工资会高于使劳动供求平衡的水平，这是因为最低工资法、工会和效平，这是因为最低工资法、工会和效率工资。率工资。u收入中的一些差别