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1、|Linguistics ：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. General Linguistics ：The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. language ：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Design Features ：It refers to the def
2、ining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.Linguistics：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. The scope of linguistics：The study of language as a whole
3、is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.（语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are ca
4、lled morphology. （形态学）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax（句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）The study of language with reference to society is called socio-
5、linguistics. （社会语言学）The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）1.宽式音标 Broad transcription The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only. 2.窄式音标 Narrow transcription The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diac
6、ritics. 3.清音 Voiceless When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without causing vibration ,the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds. 4.浊音 Voicing Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds. 5.元音 Vowel The sounds in
7、 the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels. 6.辅音 Consonants The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called conso
8、nants. 7.音位 Phoneme The basic unit in phonology, its a collection of distinctive phonetic features. 8.音位变体 Allophones Different phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. 9.音素 phone A phonetic unit or segment. it doesnot necessarily dist
9、inguish meaning, its a speech sound we use when speaking a language. 10.最小对立对 Minimal pair When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 11.超切分特征 Suprasegmental The phonem
10、ic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features. the main suprasegmental features include stress ,intonation and tone. 12.互补分布 complementary distribution P35 |Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution. 13.语言的语音媒介 Phonic m
11、edium of language The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 14.爆破音 stops When a obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction rel
12、eased and the air passing out again is called a stop or a plosive. they areb p t d k g 1.词素 Morpheme The basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest meaningful unit of language. 2.自由词素 Free Morpheme Free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves.
13、3.黏着词素 Bound morphemes Bound morphemes are these morphemes that canot be used by themselves, must be combined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently. 4.词根 Root Root is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. 5.词缀 Affix The c
14、ollective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. 6.曲折词缀 inflectional affixes The manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case. 7.派生词缀 Derivational affixes The manifestatio
15、n of relation between stems and affixes through the addition of derivational affixes. 8.词干 Stem A stem is the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added. a stem can be a bound root ,a free morpheme, or a derived form itself. 9.形态学规则 Morphological rules They are rules that govern which
16、affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. 10.前缀 Prefix Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem ,but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word, exceptions are the prefixes be- and en(m)- 11.后缀 Suffix Suffixes are added to the end of stems, they modify the meaning
17、 of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech. 3.In using the morphological rules, we must guard against Over-generalization. 1.句子 sentence A structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. 2.语言运用 Linguisti
18、c competence The system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker. 3.谓语 Predicate The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate. 4.定式子句 Finite Clause A clause that takes a subject an
19、d a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone. 5.从属子句 Embedded Clause (E C) |In a complete sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an E C . 6.主要子句 Matrix Clause In a complexed sentence, the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix clause. 7.层次
20、结构 Hierarchical structure The sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic categories of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP. 8.语法关系 Grammatical relations The structural and logical functional relations between every noun phrase and sentence. 9
21、.句法类型 Syntactic category A word or phrase that performs a particular grammatical function such as the subject or object. 10.表层结构 S-structure A level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement. 11.深层结构 D-structure A level of syntactic representation before the ope
22、ration of necessary syntactic movement. 12.普遍语法 General grammar A system of linguistic knowledge which consists of some general principles and parameters about nature language. 13.移动 规则 Move A general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. 14.句法移位 Syntactic
23、movement Syntactic movement occurs when a constituent moves out of its original place to a new position. 15.转换原则 Transformation rules Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called transformational rules, whose operation may change the syntactic representation of a sentence. 16.X 标杆理论
24、X-bar theory A general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrases structure rules into a single format :X”（Spec）X(Compl). 1.命名论 The naming theory The naming theory, one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.
25、 According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words,the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things. 2.意念论 The conceptualist view It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and
26、 what it refers to; rather ,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. 3.语境论 Conceptualism Its based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. her are two kinds of context: the situational and th
27、e linguistic context. 4.行为主义论 Behaviorism It refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the” situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”. this theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response. 5.意义 Se
28、nse Its concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. Its the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, its abstract and de-contextualized. 6.所指意义 Reference |It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it deals with the relationship between the l
29、inguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 7.同义词 Synonymy It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close in meaning are called synonyms. 8.多义词 Polysemy It refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word
30、 may have more than one meaning. 9.同音(形) 异义 Homonymy It refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, i.e, different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. 10.同音异义 Homophones It refers to two words are identical in sound. e.g. rain/reign. 11.同形异义 Homo
31、graphs It refers to two words are identical in form .e.g. tear v./tear n. 12.上下义关系 Hyponymy It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called
32、its hyponyms. 13.反义词 Antonymy Its the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension. 14.成分分析法 Componential Analysis-分析词汇抽象意义 Its a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. this approach is based upon the belief that meaning of a word can be dissected into m
33、eaning components, called semantic features. 15.述谓结构分析 Predication Analysis 由 British Linguist G.Leech 提出 Its a new approach for sentential meaning analysis. Predication is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions, questions, commands ect. 通过对论元 argument 和谓语 predicate 的
34、分析，达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种。 16.先设前提 Presupposition Its a semantic relationship or logical connection. A presupposes B. 17.蕴涵 Entailment Entailment can be illustrated by the following tow sentences in which sentence A entails sentence B. A: Mark married a blonde heiress. B: Mark married a blonde.1.语境 Co
35、ntext The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, its generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 2.言语行为理论 Speech act theory Its an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. its a philosophical explanation of the na
36、ture of linguistic communication. it aims to answer the question ”what do we do when using language?” The concept of causatives performatives, the locutionary act, the illocutionary act, the perlocutionary act and the5categories of illocutionary act suggested and formulated by J.R.Searle constitute
37、the speech act theory. 3.叙述句 Constatives Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable and it bearing the truth-value.; |4.行为句 Performatives Performatives are sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable. 5.言内行为 Locutionary Act A
38、 locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases ,clauses. its the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. 6.言外行为 Illcotionary Act An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speakers intention its the act performed in saying something. 7.言后行为 Perlocut
39、ionary Act Perlocuationary Act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something. its the consequence of ,or the change brought about by the utterance. 8.句子意义 Sentence meaning It refers to a sentence and is a grammatical concept, the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract in
40、trinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. 9.话语意义 Utterance meaning It refers to a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes and utterance and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered. 10.合作原则 Cooperative P
41、rinciple Its proposed and formulated by P.Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis, is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. 11.会话含义 Conversational implicatures According to P.Grice, it refers to the extra meani
42、ng not contained in th utterance, understandable to the listener only when he shares the speakers Langue 和 parole 的区别 U.S.A linguist N.Chomsky N.Chomsky in1950 针对 Saussures langue 2. 合作原则的准则 4Maxim of Cooperative Principle 数量 the maxim of Quantity-你说的话应包含所需内容且不可超过内容要求 Make your contribution as infor
43、mative as required; Do not make your contribution more informative than is required 质量 the maxim of Quality -不要说你认为是假的话或你缺乏足够证据的话 Do not say what you believe to false. Do not say for which you lack adequate evidence 关系 the maxim of relation-使你的话与话题相关 be relevant 方式 the maxim of manner-避免模糊、歧义，应简明有序
44、Avoid obscurity of expression and ambiguity; Be brief/be orderly. 3.六七十年代时，美国哲学语言学家 John Searle 对言外行为分成了 5 类 阐述性 Representatives-to commit the speaker to somethings being the |Case ,to the truth of what has been said. 例词:stating, believing, swearing, hypothesizing 最有代表性, 指令性 Directives-are attempts
45、by the speaker to get the hearer to do something. 例词:inviting, suggesting ,requesting ,advising ,warning ,threatening, ordering 是特有实例 承诺性 Commissives-when speaking the speaker puts himself under obligation. 例词:promising, undertaking, vowing 最典型 表达类 Expressives-the speaker is expressing his feelings
46、or attitude towards an existing state of affairs. 例词:apologizing ,thanking, congratulating 宣告类 Declarations-the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality. 4.Semantics 和 Pragmatics 的区分 Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in t
47、he process of communication. The basic difference between them is that pragmatics considers meaning in context, traditional semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use. 5.语境中听者与说话者 shared knowledge is of two types: The knowledge of the language they use, the knowledge about the wo
48、rld, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place. 6.Sentence meaning 与 Utterance meaning 的区别 Sentence meaning-abstract, decontextualized. Utterance meaning-concrete, contextualized its based on sente
49、nce meaning, its the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. 区分句子和话句，类似区分语义和语用学，关键在于是否考虑语境。 7.While most utterances take the form of sentences ,i.e. most utterances are complete sentences In terms of syntax, some utterances are not, and some cant even be restored to complete sentences1.描述变化的本质 characterized the nature of language change All living languages change with time.language change is not only universal and inevit