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1、精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - Chapter 1: Introduction 1.Linguistics: 语言学 It is generally defined as the scientific study of language. Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but it studies language in general 2.General linguistics:一般语言学The study of language as a whole is called general linguisti
2、cs. language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets 3.Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 4.descriptive 描述性 :A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use. 5.prescriptive 规定性 : It aims to lay down
3、 rules for “ correct and standard ” behaviors. i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say. 6.synchronic 共时语言学 : the description of language at some point of time in hiatory 7.diachronic 历时语言学 :the description of language as it changes through time 3 speech （口语） Writing （书面语）These the
4、two media of communication. spoken language as primary, not the written. Modern linguistics regards the speech is prior to writing 8.langue 语言 : refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of the speech community. It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all hav
5、e to abide by. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate. 9.parole 言语:refers to the realization of langue in actual use. It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Saussure petence语言才能 : the ideal user s knowledge of the rules of his language 11.perfor
6、mance语 言 应 用 :the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Chomsky traditional grammar and modern linguistics 1.linguistics is descriptive,while traditional grammar is prescriptive 2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the writer. 3. also in that it
7、 does not force languages into a latin-based framework. Functions of language. 1 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 1 页,共 9 页精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 1.the descriptive function. 2. the expressive function 3.the social function Chapter 2: Phonology 音系学phonetics:the study of the phonic medium of language; it is co
8、ncerned with all the sounds that occur in the world9. s languagesThe three branches of phonetics 1.Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学 longest history 2.Auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）3Acoustic phonetics 声学语音学）2. Speech organs: three important areas Pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 - the throat; The oral cavity 口腔 - the mou
9、th; Nasal cavity 鼻腔 - the nose. The principle source such modifications is the tongue. The tongue is the most flexible. International Phonetic Alphabet IPA:the basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound. Broad transcription 宽式音
10、标 . The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only. Narrow transcription 窄式音标 The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics. Aspirated and unaspirated 1. phonology: 音系学 It aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are
11、 used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. 4. Phone, phoneme, allophone A phone 音素 is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some dont, e.g. bI:t & bIt , spIt
12、& spIt. A phoneme 音位 is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in pIt, tIp and spIt. Allophones 音 素 变 体 - the phones th
13、at can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments 2 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 2 页,共 9 页精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - sequential rule ,Sequential rule 序列规章 : rule governing the combination of sounds in a particular language.Assimilation rule（同化规章） : rule assimilating one sound to another by copyin
14、g features of sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar.Deletion rule （省略规章） : rule governing the deletion of a sound in a certain phonetic context although it is represented in spelling. 6. Suprasegmental features（超切分特点）Stress Word stress and sentence stress Tone 声调Tones are pitch varia
15、tions,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. English is not a tone language, but Chinese is. Intonation 语调When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation. English has three types of
16、 intonation that are most frequently used: falling tone matter of fact statement rising tone doubts or question the fall-rise tone implied message the frise-fall tone not frequently used For instance, “ That s not the book he wants.Chapter 3: Morphology1. Morphology 形状学 : refers to the the study of
17、the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed 2. Morpheme 词素 : It is the smallest meaningful unit of language. 3. Free morpheme 自由词素 :a morpheme can be a word by itself. 4. Bound morpheme .黏着词素 : a morpheme that must be attached to another one. 5. Allmorphs 词素变体 :the varian
18、t forms of a morpheme Chapter 4: Syntax Syntax 句法学 : Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences. Word-level categories 1,Major lexical categories 2. minor lexical categories 3 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 3 页,共 9 页精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - To determine a
19、word s categorie,three critera are usually employed 1.meaning 2.inflection 3.distribution. Phrase :syntactic units that are built around a centain word category complementizers words which introduce the sentence complement complement clause the sentence introduced by the cmomplementizers D-structure
20、: formed by the XP rule in accordance with the heads subcategorization properties S-structure: corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results form appropriate transformation . Chapter 5: SemanticsSemantics: 语义学 can be simply defined as the study of meaning. 1）The naming theo
21、ry 命名论 Oldest notions concering meaning.most primitive one. It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.words are just names or labels for things. 2）The conceptualist view（意念论）It holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic form and what it refers to. In the interpretation of mean
22、ing, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. 3Contextualism（语境论）Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized: Situational context: spatiotemporal situation Linguistic context:
23、 the probability of a word-occurrence or collocation. For example, “ black ” in black hair & black coffee, or black sheep differs in meaning; “ The president of the United States” can mean either the preor presidency in different situation. 4 Behaviorism（行为主义论）Bloomfield Behaviorists attempted to de
24、fine meaning as “ the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer” .The story of Jack and Jill: Jill Jack S_r-s_R 3. Sense and reference Sense- - is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the
25、linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. Reference -what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 4. Major sense relations Synonymy （同义关系）Synonymy refers to the sam
26、eness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 同义词4 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 4 页,共 9 页精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - complete synonyms, i.e. synonymy that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rare Homonymy （同音 /同形异义）Homonymy: Homonymy refers to t
27、he phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, （1Homophones（同音异义） : When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones. e.g. rain/reign. 同形异义 : When two words are identical in spelling, they （2Homographsare homographs. e.g. tear v. / tear n.（3Complete homonyms同
28、音同形异义 : When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms. e.g. fast v. / fast adj.; scale v. /scale. n. Hyponymy （下义关系）Hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. eg.superordinate: flo
29、wer hyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lily Antonymy （反义关系）the term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning 1 Gradable antonyms （等级反义词 ）-there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair, e. g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short 2 Complementary antonyms （互补反义词 ）-the denial of one
30、 member of the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male- female 3 Relational opposites （ 关 系 反 义 词 ） -exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below
31、 2 There are two aspects to sentence meaning: 1.grammatical meaning 2. semantic meaning, e.g. selectional restrictions. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules eg. constraints on what lexical items can go with what others Predication Leech.analysis- - a way to analyze sent
32、ence meaning British G. Chapter 6: Pragmatics 1. Pragmatics: 语用学 the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. 5 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 5 页,共 9 页精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning. What essentially disti
33、nguishes semantics and pragmatic sis whether the context of use is considered in the study of meaning If it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics. Austin s new model of speech acts
34、Utterance meaning: the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. Cooperative PrincipleCD:Paul Grice. His idea is that to con
35、verse with each other, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. 3）Principle of conversation Paul Grice The maxim of quantity （数量准就）Make your contribution as informative as required for the current purpose of the ex
36、change. （使自己所说的话达到当前交谈目的所要求的详尽程度；）Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. （不能使自己所说的话比所要求的更详尽；）he maxim of quality （质量准就）Do not say what you believe to be false.（不要说自己认为不真实的话；）Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.（不要说自己缺乏足够证据的话；）The maxim of relation （关联准就）Be
37、relevant. （说话要贴切；）The maxim of manner （方式准就）Avoid obscurity of expression. （防止晦涩的词语；）Avoid ambiguity. （防止歧义；）Be brief avoid unnecessary prolixity Be orderly. （说话要有条理；）（说话要简短,防止累赘；）Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics 社会语言学 The sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, be
38、tween the use of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.6 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 6 页,共 9 页精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - speech variety 言语变体 refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers. Linguistic repertoire 语言库 the totality of lingu
39、istic varieties possessed by an individual constitutes his linguistic repertoire.Hallidays register theory. according to Halliday British, “ language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.”Register 语域 the type of language which is selected as apprppriate to the type of si
40、tuation is a Register field of discourse, 话语范畴 It can be either technical or non-technical. tenor of discourse, 话语意旨 It refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question mode of discourse 话语方式 It refers to the means of communication Five stages of formality Intimate Casual Consultative
41、 Formal Frozen Bilingualism 双语现象In some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes. This constitutes the situation of Bilingualism.diglossia According to Ferguson 1959, refers to a sociol
42、inguistic situation similar to bilingualism. chapter 9 culture 文化 in a broad sense, reflects a total way of life of a people in a community. in a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs. the relation of language to culture is that of part to whole. discourse
43、 communities 话语社会 the common ways in which members of the social group use similar language to meet their needs. linguistic relativity 语言相对性 to put it simply, different language offer people different ways of expressing the world around, and so they think and speak differently an linguistic sign may
44、 simultaneously have a denotativ meanings.e,connotative meanings., iconic meanings.three forms of culture contact are identified: acculturation ,assimilation, amalgamation through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B,thus bringing about cultural diff
45、usion chapter 10 language acquisition 语言习得 refers to a childs acquisition of his mother tongue. 7 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 7 页,共 9 页精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - three different theories concerning ho language is learned:the behaviorist, the innatist, the interationist. Chomsky proposed that human being are
46、 born with an innate ability known known as language acquisition device or o rLAD .later Chomsky referred this innate endowment as Universal Grammar. the interactionisist view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows. critical period Hypothesis 关键期假说 Er