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1、蚂蚁智力Collective intelligence:：Ants and brains neurons STANFORD-An individual ant is not very bright,but ants in a colony,operating as a collective,do remarkable things.A single neuron in the human brain can respond only to what the neurons connected to it are doing,but all of them together can be Imm
2、anuel Kant.That resemblance is why Deborah M.Gordon,StanfordUniversity assistant professor of biological sciences,studies ants.Im interested in the kind of system where simple units together do behave in complicated ways,she said.No one gives orders in an ant colony,yet each ant decides what to do n
3、ext.For instance,an ant may have several job descriptions.When the colony discovers a new source of food,an ant doing housekeeping duty may suddenly become a forager.Or if the colonys territory size expands or contracts,patroller ants change the shape of their reconnaissance pattern to conform to th
4、e new realities.Since no one is in charge of an ant colony-including the misnamed queen,which is simply a breeder-how does each ant decide what to do?This kind of undirected behavior is not unique to ants,Gordon said.How do birds flying in a flock know when to make a collective right turn?All anchov
5、ies and other schooling fish seem to turn in unison,yet no one fish is the leader.Gordon studies harvester ants in Arizona and,both in the field and in her lab,the so-called Argentine ants that are ubiquitous to coastal California.Argentine ants came to Louisiana in a sugar shipment in 1908.They wer
6、e driven out of the Gulf states by the fire ant and invaded California,where they have displaced most of the native ant species.One of the things Gordon is studying is how they did so.No one has ever seen an ant war involving the Argentine species and the native species,so its not clear whether they
7、 are quietly aggressive or just find ways of taking over food resources and territory.The Argentine ants in her lab also are being studied to help her understand how they change behavior as the size of the space they are exploring varies.The ants are good at finding new places to live in and good at
8、 finding food,Gordon said.Were interested in finding out how they do it.Her ants are confined by Plexiglas walls and a nasty glue-like substance along the tops of the boards that keeps the ants inside.She moves the walls in and out to change the arena and videotapes the ants movements.A computer tra
9、cks each ant from its image on the tape and reads its position so she has a diagram of the ants activities.The motions of the ants confirm the existence of a collective.A colony is analogous to a brain where there are lots of neurons,each of which can only do something very simple,but together the w
10、hole brain can think.None of the neurons can think ant,but the brain can think ant,though nothing in the brain told that neuron to think ant.For instance,ants scout for food in a precise pattern.What happens when that pattern no longer fits the circumstances,such as when Gordon moves the walls?Ants
11、communicate by chemicals,she said.Thats how they mostly perceive the world;they dont see very well.They use their antennae to smell.So to smell something,they have to get very close to it.The best possible way for ants to find everything-if you think of the colony as an individual that is trying to
12、do this-is to have an ant everywhere all the time,because if it doesnt happen close to an ant,theyre not going to know about it.Of course,there are not enough ants in the colony to do that,so somehow the ants have to move around in a pattern that allows them to cover space efficiently.Keeping in min
13、d that no one is in charge of a colony and that there is no central plan,how do the ants adjust their reconnaissance if their territory expands or shrinks?No ant told them,OK,guys,if the arena is 20 by 20.Somehow there has to be some rule that individual ants use in deciding to change the shape of t
14、heir paths so they cover the areas effectively.I think that that rule is the rate in which they bump into each other.The more crowded they are,the more often each ant will bump into another ant.If the area of their territory is expanded,the frequency of contact decreases.Perhaps,Gordon thinks,each a
15、nt has a threshold for normality and adjusts its path shape depending on how often the number of encounters exceeds or falls short of that threshold.If the territory shrinks,the number of contacts increases and the ant alters its search pattern.If it expands,contact decreases and it alters the patte
16、rn a different way.In the Arizona harvester ants,Gordon studies tasks besides patrolling.Each ant has a job.I divide the tasks into four:foraging,nest maintenance,midden piling refuse,including husks of seeds and patrolling-patrollers are the ones that come out first in the morning and look for food
17、.The foragers go where the patrollers find food.The colony has about eight different foraging paths.Every day it uses several of them.The patrollers go out first on the trails and they attract each other when they find food.By the end of an hours patrolling,most patrollers are on just a few trails.A
18、ll the foragers have to do is go where there are the most patrollers.Each ant has its prescribed task,but the ants can switch tasks if the collective needs it.An ant on housekeeping duty will decide to forage.No one told it to do so and Gordon and other entomologists dont know how that happens.文档编码:
19、CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R
20、2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:
21、CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R
22、2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:
23、CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R
24、2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:
25、CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5No ant can possibly know how much food everybody is collecting,how many foragers are needed,she said.An ant has to have very simple rules that tell it,OK,switch and start foraging.But a
26、n ant cant assess globally how much food the colony needs.Ive done perturbation experiments in which I marked ants according to what task theyre doing on a given day.The ants that were foraging for food were green,those that were cleaning the nest were blue and so on.Then I created some new situatio
27、n in the environment;for example,I create a mess that the nest maintenance workers have to clean up or Ill put out extra food that attracts more foragers.It turns out that ants that were marked doing a certain task one day switch to do a different task when conditions change.Of about 8,000 species o
28、f ants,only about 10 percent have been studied thus far.Its hard to generalize anything about the behavior of ants,Gordon said.Most of what we know about ants is true of a very,very small number of species compared to the number of species out there.天才儿童TIME:5-7 HOW IQ BECOMES IQ In 1904 the French
29、minister of education,facing limited resources for schooling,sought a way to separate the unable from the merely lazy.Alfred Binet got the job of devising selection principles and his brilliant solution put a stamp on the study of intelligence and was the forerunner of intelligence tests still used
30、today.He developed a thirty-problem test in 1905,which tapped several abilities related to intellect,such as judgment and reasoning.The test determined a given childs mental age.The test previously established a norm for children of a given physical age.For example,five-year-olds on average get ten
31、items correct,therefore,a child with a mental age of five should score 10,which would mean that he or she was functioning pretty much as others of that age.The childs mental age was then compared to his physical age.A large disparity in the wrong direction(e.g.,a child of nine with a mental age of f
32、our)might suggest inability rather than laziness and means that he or she was earmarked for special schooling.Binet,however,denied that the test was measuring intelligence and said that its purpose was simply diagnostic,for selection only.This message was however lost and caused many problems and mi
33、sunderstandings later.Although Binets test was popular,it was a bit inconvenient to deal with a variety of physical and mental ages.So,in 1912,Wilhelm Stern suggested simplifying this by reducing the two to a single number.He divided the mental age by the physical age and multiplied the result by 10
34、0.An average child,irrespective of age,would score 100.a number much lower than 100 would 文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1
35、H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 Z
36、K6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1
37、H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 Z
38、K6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1
39、H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 Z
40、K6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5suggest the need for help and one much higher would suggest a child well ahead of his peer
41、.This measurement is what is now termed the IQ(intelligence quotient)score and it has evolved to be used to show how a person,adult or child,performed in relation to others.The term IQ was coined by Lewis m.Terman,professor of psychology and education of Stanford University,in 1916.He had constructe
42、d an enormously influential revision of Binets test,called the Stanford-Binet test,versions of which are still given extensively.The field studying intelligence and developing tests eventually coalesced into a sub-field of psychology called psychometrics(psycho for,mind and metrics for measurements)
43、.The practical side of psychometrics(the development and use of tests)became widespread quite early,by 1917,when Einstein published his grand theory of relativity,mass-scale testing was already in use.Germanys unrestricted submarine warfare(which led to the sinking of the Lusitania in 1915)provoked
44、the United States to finally enter the first world war in the same year.The military had to build up an army very quickly and it had two million inductees to sort out.Who would become officers and who enlisted men?Psychometricians developed two intelligence tests that helped sort all these people ou
45、t,at least to some extent.This was the first major use of testing to decide who lived and who died since officers were a lot safer on the battlefield.The tests themselves were given under horrendously bad conditions and the examiners seemed to lack common sense.A lot of recruits simply had no idea w
46、hat to do and in several sessions most inductees scored zero!The examiners also came up with the quite astounding conclusion from the testing that the average American adults intelligence was equal to that of a thirteen-year-old!Nevertheless,the ability for various authorities to classify people on
47、scientifically justifiable premises was too convenient and significant to be dismissed lightly,so with all good astounding intentions and often over enthusiasm,societys affinity for psychological testing proliferated.Back in Europe,Sir Cyril Burt,professor of psychology at University College London
48、from 1931 to 1950,was a prominent figure for his contribution to the field.He was a firm advocate of intelligence testing and his ideas fitted in well with English cultural ideas of elitism.A government committee in 1943 used some of Burts ideas in devising a rather primitive typology on childrens i
49、ntellectual behavior.All were tested at age eleven and the top 15 or 20 per cent went to grammar schools with good teachers and a fast pace of work to prepare for the few university places available.A lot of very bright working-class children,who otherwise would never have succeeded,made it to gramm
50、ar schools and universities.The system for the rest was however disastrous.These children attended lesser secondary or technical schools and faced the prospect of eventual 文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6I1H4U8H7 HD8Y5B1R2R8 ZK6W8R8N6O5文档编码:CW6