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1、IV. Explain the following terms（整理成简答或填空）1. Ferdinand de Saussure 2. Textual function 3. The London School of Linguistics 4. Surface structure 5. Transformational-Generative grammar 6. Language Acquisition Device(LAD) 7. Innateness hypothesisIII. Explain the following terms.1. Applied linguistics 2.
2、 Interlanguage3. Contrastive analysis 4. face validity 5. Error Analysis1. Define the following terms briefly.first language acquisition: behaviorist approach innateness approach second language acquisition: contrastive analysis: error analysis language aptitude: field dependence field independence
3、learning strategiesIV. Explain the following terms.1. Interlanguage 2. Universal Grammar 3. contrastive analysis 4. Error Analysis1. Define the following terms briefly.applied linguistics grammar-translation method audiolingual method communicative language teaching testing achievement test validity
4、 reliability proficiency test subjective test objective testlanguage aptitude test diagnostic test backwash effectII. Explain the following terms.1. applied linguistics2. the audiolingual method of language teaching3. the direct method of language teachingIV. Explain the following terms.1. Ferdinand
5、 de Saussure is a Swiss linguist who is often described as “father of modern linguistics”. The great work, Course in General Linguistics, which was based on his lecture notes, marked the beginning of modern linguistics. Saussures idea on the arbitrary nature of sign, one the relational nature of lin
6、guistic units, on the distinction of langue and parole and of synchronic and diachronic linguistics, etc. pushed linguistics into a brand new stage.2. Textual function: The textual function is one of the three meta-functions language is composed of. It refers to the fact that language has mechanisms
7、 to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living message different from a random list of sentences.3. The London School generally refers to the kind of linguistic scholarship in England. The man who turned linguistics proper into a recognized dis
8、tinct academic subject in Britain was J.R. Firth.4. Surface structure: It is a term used in generative grammar to refer to the final stage in the syntactic representation of a sentence, which provides the input to the phonological component of the grammar, and which thus most closely corresponds to
9、the structure we articulate and hear. For instance, “John is easy to please.” and “John is eager to please.” are two sentences with the same surface structure.5. Transformational-generative grammar is proposed by Noam Chomsky. He postulated a syntactic base of language (called deep structure), which
10、 consists of a series of phrase-structure rewrite rules, i.e., a series of (possibly universal) rules that generates the underlying phrase-structure of a sentence. The end result of a transformational-generative grammar is a surface structure that is identical to an actual sentence of a language, af
11、ter the mediating of a series of rules (called transformations) that act upon the deep structures.6. Language Acquisition Device: LAD refers to an innate faculty of language in general with which children are born. It is posited by Chomsky, who argues that LAD probably consists of three elements: a
12、hypothesis-maker, linguistic universal, and an evaluation procedure.7. The “Innateness Hypothesis” of child language acquisition was proposed by Noam Chomsky, who states that language are somewhat innate and that children are born with what he calls a language acquisition device, which is a unique k
13、ind of knowledge that fits them for language learning.III. Explain the following terms.1. Applied linguistics: It is a branch of linguistics which studies the application of linguistics in reality. For example, there are studies on multilingualism, language acquisition, first and second language tea
14、ching and learning.2. It refers to the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language. Its a language system between the target language and the learners native language, and imperfect compared with the target language, but not
15、 mere translation from the learners native language. For example, when the Chinese student is learning English, he may make errors like “to touch the society”.3. Contrastive analysis is an approach to analysis of second language acquisition, based on a belief that a more effective teaching pedagogy
16、would come out when the similarities and differences between native language and target language are taken into consideration. By such an analysis, it is supposed that some leaning difficulties could be predicted in terms of language transfer. 4. Face validity: Unlike the other three forms of validi
17、ty, face validity is based on the subjective judgment of an observer. If the test appears to be measuring what it intends to measure, the test is considered to have face validity.5 Errors are significant in telling the teacher what needs to be taught，in telling the researcher how learning proceeds a
18、nd those errors are a means whereby learners test their hypotheses about the language to be learnt. They are worth further probing Error Analysis involves，first independently or objectively，describing the learners interlanguage (that is，their version of the target language and the target language it
19、self)，then a comparison of the two is followed to locate mismatches. Different from contrastive analysis, Error Analysis, EA for short, gives 1ess consideration to learners native language. The procedure of Error Analysis consists of the following steps:(1) Recognition(2) Description.(3) Explanation
20、. For example, explanation: the absence of an item that must appear in a well-formed utterance: e.g. She sleeping. Type of error: Omissions. 1. First language acquisition: First language acquisition (L1 acquisition) is the term most commonly used to describe the process whereby children become speak
21、ers of their native language or languages, although some linguists prefer to use the term language learning. Behaviorist approach: Behaviorist approach holds that language is learned by a process of habit-formation. It is a standard “stimulus- response-imitation-reinforcement” approach.Innateness ap
22、proach: Innateness approach treats human beings ability in learning a language as a part of the biologically innate equipment and the infant is born with a language acquisition device (LAD). It regards language acquisition as a process of “hypothesis-deduction”. Second language acquisition: Second l
23、anguage acquisition (L2 acquisition) refers to the learning of a foreign language in addition to the mother tongue, inside or outside a classroom. Contrastive analysis: It is a method of analyzing languages for instructional purposes whereby a native language and target language are compared with a
24、view to establishing points of difference likely to cause difficulties for learners.Error analysis: Error analysis (EA) refers to the study and analysis of the errors made by second and foreign language learners in order to identify causes of errors of common difficulties in language learning. It is
25、 an alternative to contrastive analysis. Language aptitude: The natural ability for learning an L2 is termed as language aptitude, not including intelligence, motivation, interest, etc.Field dependence: Field dependence is a learning style in which a learner tends to look at the whole of a learning
26、task which contains many items. The learner has difficulty in studying a particular item when it occurs within a field of other items.Field independence: Field independence is a learning style in which a learner is able to identify or focus on particular items and is not distracted by other items in
27、 the background and context.Learning strategies: Learning strategies are the particular approaches or techniques that learners use to try to learn an L2. They can be behavioral or mental and they are typically problem-oriented.IV. Explain the following terms.1. Interlanguage. refers to the type of l
28、anguage constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language. Its a language system between the target language and the learners native language, and imperfect compared with the target language, but not mere translation from the learners native langu
29、age. For example, when the Chinese student is learning English, he may make errors like “to touch the society”.2. Universal grammar is a theory of linguistics postulating principles of grammar shared by all languages, thought to be innate to humans (linguistic nativism). It attempts to explain langu
30、age acquisition in general, not describe specific languages. Universal grammar proposes a set of rules intended to explain language acquisition in child development.3. Contrastive analysis is an approach to analysis of second language acquisition, based on a belief that a more effective teaching ped
31、agogy would come out when the similarities and differences between native language and target language are taken into consideration. By such an analysis, it is supposed that some leaning difficulties could be predicted in terms of language transfer.4. Errors are significant in telling the teacher wh
32、at needs to be taught，in telling the researcher how learning proceeds and those errors are a means whereby learners test their hypotheses about the language to be learnt. They are worth further probing Error Analysis involves，first independently or objectively，describing the learners interlanguage (
33、that is，their version of the target language and the target language itself)，then a comparison of the two is followed to locate mismatches. Different from contrastive analysis, Error Analysis, EA for short, gives 1ess consideration to learners native language. The procedure of Error Analysis consist
34、s of the following steps:(1) Recognition(2) Description.(3) Explanation. For example, explanation: the absence of an item that must appear in a well-formed utterance: e.g. She sleeping. Type of error: Omissions. 1. Applied linguistics: Applied linguistics is the study of language and linguistics in
35、relation to practical issue, e.g. speech therapy, language teaching, testing, and translation. Grammar-translation method: Grammar-translation method refers to a method of foreign or second language teaching which makes use of translation and grammar study as the main teaching and learning activitie
36、s.Audiolingual method: Audiolingual method refers to the teaching of a second language through imitation, repetition, and reinforcement. It emphasizes the teaching of speaking and listening before reading and writing and the use of mother tongue in the classroom is not allowed.Communicative language
37、 teaching: Communicative language teaching refers to the approach to foreign or second language teaching which emphasizes that the goal of language learning is communicative competence.Testing: It refers to the use of test, or the study of the theory and the practice of their use, development, evalu
38、ation, etc.Achievement test: Achievement test is a test which measures how much of a language someone has learned with reference to a particular course of study or program of instruction. Validity: Validity (in testing) refers to the degree to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure, or
39、 can be used successfully for the purposes for which it is intended. A number of different statistical procedures can be applied to a test to estimate its validity. Such procedures generally seek to determine what the test measures, and how well it does so. Reliability: Reliability(in testing) refer
40、s to a measure of the degree to which a test gives consistent results; a test is said to be reliable if it gives the same results when it is given on different occasions or when it is used by different people. Proficiency test: Proficiency test is a test which measures how much of a language someone
41、 has learned without bothering the syllabus, duration and manner of learning.Subjective test: Subject test refers to a test which is scored according to the personal judgment of the marker, such as an essay examination or translation. Objective test: Objective test is a test that can be marked witho
42、ut the use of the examiners personal judgment. Language aptitude test: Language aptitude test is a test which measures a persons aptitude for second or foreign language learning and which can be used to identify those learners who are most likely to succeed. Diagnostic test: Diagnostic test refers t
43、o a test which is designed to show what skills or knowledge a learner knows or doesnt know. For example, a diagnostic pronunciation test may be used to measure the learners pronunciation of English sounds. It would show which sounds a student is and is not able to pronounce. Diagnostic test may be u
44、sed to find out how much a learner knows before beginning a language course.Backwash effect: Backwash effect refers to the effect of tests on classroom L2 teaching and learning. II. Explain the following terms.1. Applied linguistics. It is a branch of linguistics which studies the application of lin
45、guistics in reality. For example, there are studies on multilingualism, language acquisition, first and second language teaching and learning.2. It is the teaching of a second language through imitation, repetition, and reinforcement. It emphasizes the teaching of speaking and listening before readi
46、ng and writing and the use of mother tongue in the classroom is not allowed.3. The learning of a second language by using the target language directly and associating speech form with action, gesture, objects and situations. Mother tongue is never or rarely used in the classroom, and the students supposedly acquire the second language in a way similar to the way they acquired their first language.