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1、How to Write a Paper in Scientific Journal Style and Format (pdf)Bates College http:/abacus.bates.edu/ganderso/biology/resources/writing/HTWtablefigs.html 1 Almost Everything You Wanted to Know About Making Tables and Figures Definitions|Getting Organized|Referencing from Text|Abbreviation of Fig.|N

3、ation to your readers.Data summaries may take one of 3 forms:text,Tables and Figures.Text:contrary to what you may have heard,not all analyses or results warrant a Table or Figure.Some simple results are best stated in a single sentence,with data summarized parenthetically:“Seed production was highe

4、r for plants in the full-sun treatment(52.3+/-6.8 seeds)than for those receiving filtered light(14.7 3.2 seeds,t=11.8,df=55,p0.001.)”Tables:Tables present lists of numbers or text in columns,each column having a title or label.Do not use a table when you wish to show a trend or a pattern of relation

5、ship between sets of values-these are better presented in a Figure.For instance,if you needed to present population sizes and sex ratios for your study organism at a series of sites,and you planned to focus on the differences among individual sites according to(say)habitat type,you would use a table

6、.However,if you wanted to show us that sex ratio was related to population size,you would use a Figure.Figures:Figures are visual presentations of results,including graphs,diagrams,photos,drawings,schematics,maps,etc.Graphs are the most common type of figure and will be discussed in detail;examples

7、of other types of figures are included at the end of this section.Graphs show trends or patterns of relationship.Organizing your presentation:Once you have done your analyses and decided how best to present each one,think about how you will arrange them.Your analyses should tell a story which leads

8、the reader through the steps needed to logically answer the question(s)you posed in your Introduction.The order in which you present your results can be as important in convincing your readers as what you actually say in the text.How to refer to Tables and Figures from the text:Every Figure and Tabl

9、e included in the paper MUST be referred to from the text.Use sentences that draw the readers attention to the How to Write a Paper in Scientific Journal Style and Format (pdf)Bates College http:/abacus.bates.edu/ganderso/biology/resources/writing/HTWtablefigs.html 2 relationship or trend you wish t

10、o highlight,referring to the appropriate Figure or Table only parenthetically:“Germination rates were significantly higher after 24 h in running water than in controls(Fig.4).”“DNA sequence homologies for the purple gene from the four congeners(Table 1)show high similarity,differing by at most 4 bas

11、e pairs.”Avoid sentences that give no information other than directing the reader to the Figure or Table:“Table 1 shows the summary results for male and female heights at Bates College.”Abbreviation of the word Figure:When referring to a Figure in the text,the word Figure is abbreviated as Fig.,whil

12、e Table is not abbreviated.Both words are spelled out completely in descriptive legends.How to number Tables and Figures:Figures and Tables are numbered independently,in the sequence in which you refer to them in the text,starting with Figure 1 and Table 1.If,in revision,you change the presentation

13、sequence of the figures and tables,you must renumber them to reflect the new sequence.Placement of Figures and Tables within the Paper:In manuscripts(e.g.lab papers,drafts),Tables and Figures are usually put on separate pages from text material.In consideration of your readers,place each Table or Fi

14、gure as near as possible to the place where you first refer to it(e.g.,the next page).It is permissible to place all the illustrative material at the end of the Results section so as to avoid interrupting the flow of text.The Figures and Tables may be embedded in the text,but avoid breaking up the t

15、ext into small blocks;it is better to have whole pages of text with Figures and Tables on their own pages.The Acid Test for Tables and Figures:Any Table or Figure you present must be sufficiently clear,well-labeled,and described by its legend to be understood by your intended audience without readin

16、g the results section,i.e.,it must be able to stand alone and be interpretable.Overly complicated Figures or Tables may be difficult to understand in or out of context,so strive for simplicity whenever possible.If you are unsure whether your tables or figures meet these criteria,give them to a fello

17、w biology major(not in your course)and ask them to interpret your results.Descriptive Legends or Captions:To pass the acid test above,a clear and complete legend(sometimes called a caption)is essential.Like the title of the paper itself,each legend should convey as much information as possible about

18、 what the Table or Figure tells the reader:what results are being shown in the graph(s)including the summary statistics plotted the organism studied in the experiment(if applicable),context for the results:the treatment applied or the relationship displayed,etc.How to Write a Paper in Scientific Jou

19、rnal Style and Format (pdf)Bates College http:/abacus.bates.edu/ganderso/biology/resources/writing/HTWtablefigs.html 3 location(ONLY if a field experiment),specific explanatory information needed to interpret the results shown(in tables,this is frequently done as footnotes)culture parameters or cond

20、itions if applicable(temperature,media,etc)as applicable,and,sample sizes and statistical test summaries as they apply.Do not simply restate the axis labels with a versus written in between.Example:“Figure 1.Height frequency(%)of White Pines(Pinus strobus)in the Thorncrag Bird Sanctuary,Lewiston,Mai

21、ne,before and after the Ice Storm of 98.Before,n=137,after,n=133.Four trees fell during the storm and were excluded from the post-storm survey.”In the examples later in this section,note the completeness of the legends.When you are starting out,you can use one of these examples(or an appropriate exa

22、mple from a published paper)as a model to follow in constructing your own legends.NOTE:Questions frequently arise about how much methodology to include in the legend,and how much results reporting should be done.For lab reports,specific results should be reported in the results text with a reference

23、 to the applicable Table or Figure.Other than culture conditions,methods are similarly confined to the Methods section.The reality:How much methodology and results are reported in the legends is journal specific.Hot-off-the-press journals like Science and Nature so limit the body text that virtually

24、 all of the Methods are presented in the Figure and Table legends or in footnotes.Much of the results are also reported in the legends.Where do you place the legend?Table legends go above the body of the Table and are left justified;Tables are read from the top down.Figure legends go below the graph

25、;graphs and other types of Figures are usually read from the bottom up.How to Write a Paper in Scientific Journal Style and Format (pdf)Bates College http:/abacus.bates.edu/ganderso/biology/resources/writing/HTWtablefigs.html 4 The Anatomy of a Table Table 4 below shows the typical layout of a table

26、 in three sections demarcated by lines.Tables are most easily constructed using your word processors table function or a spread sheet such as Excel.Gridlines or boxes,commonly invoked by word processors,are helpful for setting cell and column alignments,but should be eliminated from the printed vers

27、ion.Tables formatted with cell boundaries showing are unlikely to be permitted in a journal.Example 1:Courtesy of Shelley Ball.How to Write a Paper in Scientific Journal Style and Format (pdf)Bates College http:/abacus.bates.edu/ganderso/biology/resources/writing/HTWtablefigs.html 5 Example 2:Courte

28、sy of Shelley Ball.Example 3:Courtesy of Greg Anderson How to Write a Paper in Scientific Journal Style and Format (pdf)Bates College http:/abacus.bates.edu/ganderso/biology/resources/writing/HTWtablefigs.html 6 In these examples notice several things:the presence of a period after Table#;the legend

29、(sometimes called the caption)goes above the Table;units are specified in column headings wherever appropriate;lines of demarcation are used to set legend,headers,data,and footnotes apart from one another.footnotes are used to clarify points in the table,or to convey repetitive information about ent

30、ries;footnotes may also be used to denote statistical differences among groups.The Anatomy of a Figure The sections below show when and how to use the four most common Figure types(bar graph,frequency histogram,XY scatterplot,XY line graph.)The final section gives examples of other,less common,types

31、 of Figures.Parts of a Graph:Below are example figures(typical line and bar graphs)with the various component parts labeled in red.Refer back to these examples if you encounter an unfamiliar term as you read the following sections.How to Write a Paper in Scientific Journal Style and Format (pdf)Bate

32、s College http:/abacus.bates.edu/ganderso/biology/resources/writing/HTWtablefigs.html 7 Some general considerations about Figures:Big or little?For course-related papers,a good rule of thumb is to size your figures to fill about one-half of a page.Readers should not have to reach for a magnifying gl

33、ass to make out the details.Compound figures may require a full page.Color or no color?Most often black and white is preferred.The rationale is that if you need to photocopy or fax your paper,any information conveyed by colors will be lost to the reader.However,for a poster presentation or a talk wi

34、th projected images,color can be helpful in distinguishing different data sets.Every aspect of your Figure should convey information;never use color simply because it is pretty.Title or no title?Never use a title for Figures included in a paper;the legend conveys all the necessary information and th

35、e title just takes up extra space.However,for posters or projected images,where people may have a harder time reading the small print of a legend,a larger font title is very helpful.Offset axes or not?Elect to offset the axes only when data points will be obscured by being printed over the Y axis.Er

36、ror bars or not?Always include error bars(SD or SEM)when plotting means.In some courses you may be asked to plot other measures associated with the mean,such as confidence intervals.How to Write a Paper in Scientific Journal Style and Format (pdf)Bates College http:/abacus.bates.edu/ganderso/biology

37、/resources/writing/HTWtablefigs.html 8 Tick marks-Use common sense when deciding on major(numbered)versus minor ticks.Major ticks should be used to reasonably break up the range of values plotted into integer values.Within the major intervals,it is usually necessary to add minor interval ticks that

38、further subdivide the scale into logical units(i.e.,a interval that is a factor of the major tick interval).For example,when using major tick intervals of 10,minor tick intervals of 1,2,or 5 might be used,but not 4.Compound Figures When you have multiple graphs,or graphs and others illustrative mate

39、rials that are interrelated,it may be most efficient to present them as a compound figure.Compound figures combine multiple graphs into one common figure and share a common legend.Each figure must be clearly identified by capital letter(A,B,C,etc),and,when referred to from the Results text,is specif

40、ically identified by that letter,e.g.,.(Fig.1b).The legend of the compound figure must also identify each graph and the data it presents by letter.67891011-1205101520A394464Age Class(yr)Growth Increment(cm/yr)Figure 5.Mean(+SEM)annual stem growth of white pine seedlings overgrowing seasons 2006-2008

41、 following a selective harvest in 2006 in(A)aselectively harvested area,and,(B)a non-harvested area.The data arebased on direct internode length measurements.The dashed lineindicates the previous,long-term annual growth increment of seedlingsprior to the release based on analysis of a representative

42、 sample of 308seedlings in 2007.Numbers over bars indicate sample size.678910-1105101520B45344Age Class(yr)Growth Increment(cm/yr)How to Write a Paper in Scientific Journal Style and Format (pdf)Bates College http:/abacus.bates.edu/ganderso/biology/resources/writing/HTWtablefigs.html 9 Four Common F

43、igure Types Bar Graph Bar graphs are used when you wish to compare the value of a single variable(usually a summary value such as a mean)among several groups.For example,a bar graph is appropriate to show the mean sizes of plants harvested from plots that received 4 different fertilizer treatments.(

44、Note that although a bar graph might be used to show differences between only 2 groups,especially for pedagogical purposes,editors of many journals would prefer that you save space by presenting such information in the text.)In this example notice that:legend goes below the figure;a period follows F

45、igure 1 and the legend itself;Figure is not abbreviated;the measured variable is labeled on the Y axis.In most cases units are given here as well(see next example);the categorical variable(habitat)is labeled on the X axis,and each category is designated;a second categorical variable(year)within habi

46、tat has been designated by different bar fill color.The bar color must be defined in a key,located wherever there is a convenient space within the graph.error bars are included,extending+1 SD or SEM above the mean.statistical differences may be indicated by a system of letters above the bars,with an

47、 accompanying note in the caption indicating the test and the significance level used.How to Write a Paper in Scientific Journal Style and Format (pdf)Bates College http:/abacus.bates.edu/ganderso/biology/resources/writing/HTWtablefigs.html 10 Notice here:the completeness of the legend,which in this

48、 case requires over 3 lines just to describe the treatments used and variable measured.axis labels,with units;treatment group(pH)levels specified on X axis;error bars and group sample sizes accompany each bar,and each of these is well-defined in legend;statistical differences in this case are indica

49、ted by lines drawn over the bars,and the statistical test and significance level are identified in the legend.Frequency Histogram Frequency histograms(also called frequency distributions)are bar-type graphs that show how the measured individuals are distributed along an axis of the measured variable

50、.Frequency(the Y axis)can be absolute(i.e.number of counts)or relative(i.e.percent or proportion of the sample.)A familiar example would be a histogram of exam scores,showing the number of students who achieved each possible score.Frequency histograms are important in describing populations,e.g.size

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