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1、毕业论文(设计)A Study of Taboo Differences Between Chinese and Western Culture1. Introduction12. A general survey of taboo22.1 The definition of taboo22.2 The features of taboo32.2.1 Universality32.2.2 Variability42.2.3 Nationality43. Classifications of taboos and taboo differences between China and the W
2、est53.1 Taboos of appellation53.2 Taboos of conversation topics63.3 Taboos of expressions83.3.1 Taboos of words about scourges93.3.2 Taboos of words about sex93.3.3 Taboos of words about blasphemy103.3.4 Taboos of words about discrimination114. The analysis on taboo differences between Chinese cultu
3、re and western culture124.1 The influence of traditions on taboo124.2 The influence of histories on taboo144.3 The influence of religious beliefs on taboo165. Conclusion19References201. IntroductionWhen we consider starting a conversation with other people, we should be aware of plenty of the themes
4、 and topics not uttered freely among our human beings. The reason is that each community has its own principles when people talk about some topics. We must bear in mind what we may speak, what we should not speak, and how to speak in a proper way. Here is one example: B is an American. Once A asked
5、B a question.A: How much is your salary?B: It is none of your business.If B is a Chinese, he may tell A his salary. It is a taboo to ask an American about the salary, but it is not for the Chinese. It is taboo that is “a complicated cultural phenomenon, which exists universally in our society” (Net.
6、 2). Taboo words, however, are not the same in different countries with various cultures, so that whether some word or some topic can be covered or not, it depends on special social environment. Analyzing the taboo, we find that taboo phenomenon embodies differences between Chinese and western cultu
7、re. Only if we clearly know the taboo and those cultural differences, we can carry on the cross-cultural communication successfully and smoothly. 2. A general survey of taboo First of all, it is necessary to acquaint ourselves with what taboo is and what the features of taboos are.2.1 The definition
8、 of tabooIn ancient time, the primitive people had little knowledge about natural phenomena and the power of nature. They feared nature and could not give any explanation for what happened frequently. “Thus came into being taboo” (Net. 3). “Taboo” originated from the language of Tongan of Polynesian
9、 to indicate the proper speeches and behaviors. Dr. Thomas Bowlder defines that taboos are those expressions omitted, which cannot be read aloud in the family (Net. 3). Taboo remains two aspects: one is about the respected God and objects which are not permitted to speak freely; the other is the sne
10、ered matters which are not allowed to keep contact arbitrary. In fact, “one is word fetishism; the other is the prohibition of words and the substitutes of the words” (Net. 3). Therefore, taboo is some objects, behaviors, or relations that people try to avoid and taboo is, by extension, employed to
11、be a word to express those objects, behaviors, and relations (Gu Jiazu, 2002: 248).2.2 The features of tabooTaboo exists everywhere and it is dynamic. Meanwhile, it is different from one nation to another. Universality, variability, and nationality are its features (Net. 2).2.2.1 Universality People
12、 can notice taboos in our daily life, such as calling names of superiors directly in China, or inquiring about the age of a young lady from the West. Taboo exists in nations all over the world, in primitive tribes or civilized modern society, in China or western countries. As it were, the moment a p
13、erson was born, his behaviors and speeches were restricted by a variety of taboos. Here are some common taboos.Many Americans stand for the all-natural look. Supposing a man who is bald wears false hair, it is taboo to compliment his hair even though we are saying the truth. Peoples inner world, it
14、is a tricky problem. Sometimes we will run into people who cannot wait to pour their hearts out to us. Then there are those who make sure that their personal business is their own privacy. Therefore, try not to ask too many questions about someones feelings, marriage and family until we have a frien
15、dship with this person. Even then, we had better wait for our friend to come to us to share stories in inner world (Net. 1).2.2.2 VariabilityLanguage is alive, changing and developing continuously. A taboo in some age is likely to become a common word in another age. The words with the meaning of “p
16、regnant” can specify this. She has cancelled all her social engagements. Year: 1856She is in an interesting condition. Year: 1880She is knitting little tootees. Year: 1910She is in a family way. Year: 1920She is expecting. Year: 1935She is pregnant. Year: 1956There is the obvious variation as the ti
17、mes are moving on: the sentences become shorter, the meanings get clarified, and “pregnant” is used ultimately (Gu Jiazu, 2002: 250).And in the 19th century, “leg” should not be used in formal occasion; even a “leg” of a piano was called “a limb of a piano”, and “chicken leg”, called “chickens limbs
18、”. There is a joke about “leg”. Once a woman had a wounded right leg and was sent to hospital for a surgery. She told the doctor, her “limb”, not “upper limb” was hurt, but she was too frightened to say her “right leg”. At present, “leg” is really a common word for us.2.2.3 Nationality“Language is t
19、he signal of culture, and culture is the orbit of language” (Net. 2). A national culture can be reflected by its language, so taboo can also uncover its culture. The cultural mode of one nation has its own characteristics since histories, beliefs, and traditions vary among nations. In English, relig
20、ion and privacy are taboos, while, in Chinese, words and conversations about sex are taboos. Before the foundation of the PRC, some words were used to express contempt for the minority, “蛮人” referring to the minority, and “蒙古大夫” (a doctor of Mongol) referring to an incompetent doctor. In the West, “
21、nigger” was employed. On the contrary, these words full of the impressions of racial discrimination are taboos, thus few people use them in formal situations today.3. Classifications of taboos and taboo differences between China and the WestSome people classify taboos into verbal and nonverbal taboo
22、s, yet, in this paper, taboos are divided into the following three categories: taboos of appellation, taboos of conversation topics and taboos of expressions.3.1 Taboos of appellationIn China, people should avoid calling names of their parents, of people having a high social status, of old people. F
23、urthermore, the younger cannot have the same names as their ancestors or elders. People seldom call the others name during the process of interpersonal communication in order to show respect to him. It can be easily found out in people naming emperors. The first emperor YINGZHENG (嬴政) of the Qin dyn
24、asty, his name had the word “ZHENG” (政), so people called the first lunar month DUAN yue (端月), not ZHENG yue (正月), to avoid the words “ZHENG” (政) and “ZHENG” (正). In Tang dynasty , TAIZONG (太宗) named Li Shimin (李世民), so people in the state applied the word “DAI”(代) to substitute for the word “SHI”(世
25、), “REN”(人) to the word “MIN”(民). Even in Buddhism , “Guanshiyin” (观世音) also abstracted to “Guanyin” (观音), in which one word “SHI”(世) was evaded. On the other hand, In American culture, people only call their relatives as Grandpa or Uncle. If a stranger calls an American Uncle or Aunt, the American
26、will feel confused or even disgusted. Once a visitor Gina arrived in China and later went to a nursery. The moment she entered the gate, “children yelled Aunty, which made her unpleasant” (Hu Wenzhong, 1994: 508). She thought she was not Aunt of the children so they could not call her Aunt. Likewise
27、, a little child could not call an unknown old man Grandpa. On most informal occasions, whoever they are, male or female, young or old, they call each others name directly.To sum up, those are the differences of appellation taboos between China and the West.3.2 Taboos of conversation topicsIn this r
28、espect, it is greatly different between English and Chinese. During daily communication, some topics are taboos in the West, but they are not in China. Native English speakers evade topics, like age, income, marriage, or weight, and yet the Chinese do not mind sharing this information with other peo
29、ple. Privacy is taboo in the western culture; hence, people attach much importance to it. “A mans home is his castle”, as the saying goes.Chinese people often greet others with a sentence “Have you had a meal?” This common greeting indicates we begin our conversation with our acquaintance, just like
30、 foreigners ask “How nice the weather!” But providing that the same question is given to a foreigner, he will wonder whether we want to invite him to join the dinner. Sometimes when we get together and talk naturally about these questions: “How about your salary?”, “Are you married?”, “What do your
31、wife/ husband do?” or especially asking a woman, “How old are you”, we express our good wills to care for our friends. Generally speaking, we never feel embarrassed about these conversations, but when we ask the same questions to the foreigners, they will think that we may poke our nose into their p
32、rivacy (Net. 3).Weight is one of the touchiest subjects. In America, it is a sin and a huge embarrassment to be overweight. In fact, the thinner they are, the prettier they are considered. Looking through any American fashion magazines, we will notice that most models are nothing more than skin and
33、bones. The word “fat” should not be used if possible, as it is insulting. Chinese is different from English. Words such as “富态”, “发福”, “心宽体胖” etc., with the meaning of fat, they are employed to pay one a compliment.Sex, however, it is “the last taboo for Chinese to discuss in public” (Dai fan, 2003:
34、 98-99). Displaying interest in sex could be interpreted as a very undesirable character law, and can get one into big trouble. One can be despised and condemned for it. As China opens more to the world, the Chinese are beginning to see how widely sex is discussed in the West, and that there is noth
35、ing wrong about being sexy. Nevertheless, people still feel uncomfortable discussing anything to do with sex in public places. Thus, a topic on sex is still a taboo.Indeed, sexual matters are more sensitive in China than in the West. Westerners who start a conversation on this topic invariably make
36、a bad impression on the Chinese. Chinese conversational partners can be embarrassed by or misinterpret personal compliments a foreigner makes. In the West a man can casually compliment a woman on her appearance or clothing without meaning much by it. In China similar comments usually indicate a spec
37、ial personal interest. In some western social situations, it may be acceptable for a person to tell a member of the opposite sex that he or she is sexy or in some other way indicates that the person is attractive, but this can be embarrassing or offensive to a Chinese conversational partner (Davis,
38、1999: 93-94).Not only topics of privacy, but also topics of political and religious beliefs are taboos in the West rather than in the East. Deng Yanchang listed the following questions in his Language and Culture about American taboos: “Are you a republican or a Democrat? Why did you vote for? Do yo
39、u go to church? Whats your religious belief? Are you Catholic?” (1989: 227) In the USA, people do not ask these questions to avoid conflicts, because the United States is a country making up by immigrants from different places. Meanwhile, the Americans believe it is their freedom of choosing beliefs
40、 and nobody has the right to enquire too much. In China, however, anyone may be asked whether he is a Party member or not, whenever it is. The status of “Party member” is usually relative to morality and character (Net. 4).3.3 Taboos of expressions Taboos of expressions include taboos of words about
41、 scourges, sex, blasphemy and discrimination. More details are as follows.3.3.1 Taboos of words about scourgesIn Chinese, the number “4” and the word “死” sound almost the same. People do not like “4” for they fear the action “die”. “Death” is taboo in language. Other numbers, “73”, “84” and “100”, n
42、eed avoiding. Among old people, they think they will have three key ages. When they are 73, 84 or 100 years old, they might die before God of hell “invites” them. Accordingly, many old people are not willing to talk about their exact ages, and they will shorten or prolong one year to overpass these
43、key ages. In western countries, it is another unlucky number, “13”, regarded as taboo. They never live in Room No.13 in a hotel; in some grand hotels, there is no the 13th storey, or Room No.13; and, books may not have the Chapter 13. According to the Bible, Jesus Christ was betrayed by Judas, the 1
44、3th person in the last supper. Comparatively, the Chinese are more scared of “death” than the westerners (Gu Jiazu, 2002: 250). Speaking of death, people in any nation try to express politely and respectably. Shakespeares Hamlet to die is to sleep, and no more is a good example using “sleep” instead
45、 of “die”. In World War, Winston Churchill wrote to his wife, he described his mind about death “sometimes also I would not mind stopping living very much.” Different people have different expressions about death. “To pass away” is a common usage, or “to gasp ones last”, “to blow off”, “fallen aslee
46、p in the lord”, etc.3.3.2 Taboos of words about sexIn Chinese and English, words about sex are a kind of important taboos; hence, people keep from mentioning these words. The Chinese are more conservative, and sex is a secret topic. When people have to talk about sexual organs or activities, they us
47、ually replace them with other expressions, “下部”, “同房”, for instance. The westerners are open to sex, and yet, they do not casually remark on it in public. Moreover, four-letter words, such as shit, damn, or fuck, used to be forbidden to be listed in The Oxford English Dictionary or be broadcast on t
48、elevision or radio. Those four-letter words are included in dictionaries now, however, a person who is without caution to use them during conversation is regarded as a man lacking of cultivation (Gu Jiazu, 2002: 251).3.3.3 Taboos of words about blasphemy“Leonard Bloomfield, an American linguist, ref
49、ers to taboo in his book about language , and he says, many words about religion, like God, devil, heaven, hell, Christ, Jesus, or damn are used in serious speeches only; otherwise, it is improper, and people who break this rule will be condemned” (Gu Jiazu, 2002: 251). Deeply affected by the Christianity, people who do not believe in religion or God refuse to offend God and the devil (Gu Jiazu, 2002: 251)