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1、语言学导论语言学导论第1页，本讲稿共81页Chapter One Linguistics1.Definition2.Linguistics differs from other sciences in that it both uses languages as the tool and takes languages as its object to study.3.Philology Linguistics (语文学）（语言学）In the mid of 19thF.De Saussure(the founder of general linguistics）第2页，本讲稿共81页4.Li
2、nguistic study (1)diachronic study 历时性学习 Study the development of language in the course of time.研究语言在不同时期的特点。(2)synchronic study 共时性学习 Study linguistics at a particular point of time(given linguistic status or stage of a particular language)研究语言在同一时期的不同阶段。第3页，本讲稿共81页 linguistic study:primary synchr
3、onic study 研究语言难在：language is always changing people in the same speech community do not say the same language features of a language,cant be replaced quickly and completely.第4页，本讲稿共81页5.Langue Parole langue 语言 parole 言语 a.a set of rules or conventionsb.an abstract linguistic systemc.in every speake
4、rs mindd.not actually spokene.relatively stablea.Actual spokenb.Specific(concrete)c.situationald.the use of the rules or conventions Parole is the realization of the langue第5页，本讲稿共81页6.Language competence language performance LAD innate(capacity/intuitive to acquire language)experience Grammar(for a
5、 particular language)competence performance isnt innateworking like a machineAs.Material product第6页，本讲稿共81页 competence (Grammar)is equal to everybody ideal knowledge of language user performance isnt equal to everybody influenced by psychological and social factors.Performance is the realization of
6、the knowledge Knowledge is the essence of the competence Behavior is the essence of the performance Communicative Competence-Hymes第7页，本讲稿共81页7.prescriptivism&descriptivismPrescriptivism:a)Set down a kind of form,admit one dialect or variety is more superior than another.b)Form grammar,pronunciation,
7、lexicon.Regulate people how to actually use language.How things should be.c)Language policeDescriptivism:a)Language is live,changing.If one of language is expressive,logical,then it is a good language.b)observer/recorder/of language how things actually be/what people actually say.第8页，本讲稿共81页Chapter
8、Two Language1.Definition of language :a set of rules(eg.Syntactic rules)A well-organized systemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsUsed for human communication:there is no logical and intrinsic connection between objects and symbols.:the sound,spoken language,most important medium.:people use it to represent obj
9、ects,ideas,opinions or actions.:human specific (人类特有）第9页，本讲稿共81页2.Design features of language(1)Arbitrariness(2)Productivity(3)Duality(4)Displacement(5)Cultural transmission(6)Transferability(7)Linearity(8)interchangeability第10页，本讲稿共81页3.Social functions of language(1)Communicative means(the most im
10、portant one)(2)The means for conceptual thinking and recognition of the world.(3)The vehicle and transmitter of culture.language is cultural-dependant language mirrors culture第11页，本讲稿共81页4.Functions of language in communication(1)Phatic(2)Directive function(3)Informative function(4)Expressive functi
11、on(5)Interrogative function(6)Evocative function(7)Performative function第12页，本讲稿共81页Chapter Three Phonetics:sound of language1.Definition of phonetics:The scientific study of speech sounds,which are used by all human languages or by a particular language to represent meanings.2.Branches:(1)articulat
12、ory phonetics(发音（声）语音学)：The study of the production of the sound.(2)accustic phonetics(声学语音学）：concerned with physical properties of these sounds.第13页，本讲稿共81页(3)Auditory phonetics(听觉语音学）:concerned with the reception/perception of the hearer.3.International Phonetics Association(IPA)International Phon
13、etics Alphabet(IPA)国际音标 （1）nasalized 鼻音化 元音 （2）velarized 软腭化 （3）devoiced 轻（弱）音化 （4）dentalized 齿音化 （5）asparated 吐气音第14页，本讲稿共81页Labials /p/b/m/Labiodentals /f/v/Alveolars /d/t/s/z/n/r/l/Velars /g/k/Interdentals /Palatals /h/?/Labiovelars /w/M/第15页，本讲稿共81页Vowels approximants(延续音）non-continuants continu
14、ants =glides liquids stops/plosive affricates fricatives w/M l =t s f j r nasal oral d z v h m p k t n b g d sibilants(hissing)sonorants obstruents(阻塞音）(voiced)响声 第16页，本讲稿共81页PalatalVoicedfricativez alveolar voiced fricativef fricative voiceless obstruent labiodentals w glide approximant sonorant vo
15、iced labiovelars第17页，本讲稿共81页Vowels1.The height of the tongue high vowels,mid vowels,low vowels2.The position of the tongue front vowels,central vowels,back vowels3.lip-rounding unrounded vowels,rounded vowels4.Tenseness of the tongue tense vowels,lax vowels第18页，本讲稿共81页Rounded vowels:/u:/u/ou/:/Unrou
16、nded vowels:/i:/i/e/ei/:/Tense vowels:/i:/u:/ei/ou/a:/:/:/Lax vowels:/i/u/e/第19页，本讲稿共81页Chapter Four Phonology1.Definition:the science or the scientific study of the system and the patterns of the speech sounds of languages.2.Phonetics(语音学）：how the sounds produced,transmitted,received.3.Phonemes(音位）
17、：speech sound segments that can distinguish or contrast words in sound and meaning are called phonems.第20页，本讲稿共81页Phone:(音素）a phone is a phonetic unit or segment in the phonetically realization of a phoneme.ph 2 versions of one phoneme/p/Phones 2 realization of one phoneme p=The number of allophones
18、(音位变体）is limited.Allophones:The different phones which represent or derive from one phoneme are called the allophones of that phoneme.第21页，本讲稿共81页一个音位的不同变化形式 音位变体每一个可以读出的音叫做音素。一个音如果没有读出叫做音位。4.Phonetic representation 语音表达 phonemic representation 音位表达 Phonetic representation：of utterances shows what t
19、he speakers know about the pronunciation of utterances.Phonemic representation:of the utterances shows what the Speakers know about the abstract or underlying phonemic representation of words.第22页，本讲稿共81页5.Minimal pair:when two different words are identical in every way except for one phoneme which
20、occurs in the same place,they are said to form a minimal pair.6.Phonemic feature:（distinctive feature)区分特征 when two words are phonetically identical except for one feature,the phonetic differences is distinctive,as this difference alone can account for the meaning contrast.7.Free variations:the diff
21、erent pronunciations of one word are called free variations.第23页，本讲稿共81页8.Complementary distribution:when two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment,they are said to be in complementary distribution.9.Syllables(音节）:a syllable is the smallest structured sound
22、 unit made up of a rule-governed sequence of phonemes.peak 音节峰 peakSyllable onset 节前辅音 kn coda 音节尾 onset coda第24页，本讲稿共81页/m/n/l/r/can be peak phonological rules:The rules that determine the occurrence of phonemes in particular language.distinctive feature:(phonemic feature)区分特征（音位特征）suprasegmental f
23、eatures:pitch 音调 falling tone(超切分的音位特征）intonation语调 rising tone（suprasegmental stress重音 fall-rise tone phonemes)length音长 rise-fall tone pause停顿 juncture音渡，连音第25页，本讲稿共81页10.Phonological rule 音位规则(1)aspiration rule 吐气规则(2)Assimilation rule 同化规则(3)Devoicing rule 轻音化规则(4)Dentalization rule 齿音化规则(5)Nasal
24、ization rule 鼻音化规则(6)Homorganic nasal rule 同部位鼻音规则(7)Deletion rule 省略规则(8)Vowel schwa rule 非重读元音规则(9)Metathesis rule 移位规则 （11）dissimilation rule(10)Epenthesis rule 插音规则 异化规则第26页，本讲稿共81页11.Formalization of phonological rules to become in the environment of features-before -after a sound#word final/wo
25、rd initial第27页，本讲稿共81页/p/+consonant +alveolar/k/-voiced /s/+fricative /t/+stop +consonantal -vocalic +sibilant -vocalic +voiced第28页，本讲稿共81页1.Nasalization rule:a vowel is nasalized when it appears before a nasal.2.Aspiration rule:/p/k/t/appears at the beginning of a word and before a stressed vowel.3
26、.Unaspiration rule:/p/k/t/appears after/s/and before a stressed vowel.4.Devoicing rule:nasals and liquids when occurring after voiceless consonants,may become devoiced.5.Dentalization rule6.Vowel schwa rule7.Deletion rule第29页，本讲稿共81页Chapter Five Morphology1.word:is the smallest meaningful unit which
27、 can be used independently.(1)physically definable unit.(between two pauses)the common factor underlying a set of form a grammatical unit 词汇的语法单位 sentence clause phrase word morpheme第30页，本讲稿共81页(2)Features of words stability relative uninterruptability minimal free form(3)Classification of words ope
28、n class:whose membership is not limited,fixed,can be regularly expanded.Eg.Nouns,verbs,adjectives.closed class:they cant easily expand their new membership.eg.Conj,pron.Num,articles第31页，本讲稿共81页 Variable words:ordered and regular series of grammatical forms.Eg.study-studying-studied-studies Invariabl
29、e words:those which have no inflective endings.eg.Seldom/always/often grammatical words(function words)虚词：express grammatical meanings.Eg.Conj,pron,prep lexial words(content words)实词：express lexical meanings.Eg.Nouns,verbs,adj.,adv.第32页，本讲稿共81页(4)Word class new classes particles 小品词，助词 to-infinitive
30、 marker 不定式符号 not-negative marker 否定符号 subordinate:unit of a verbal phrase.Eg.Go on auxiliaries 助动词 will,do,have,had a)inversion form b)negative formAuxiliaries are different from verbEg.Will-will not verb dont第33页，本讲稿共81页 proform 代词形式，替代形式 pro-adjectives 代形容词，pro-verb,pro-adverb,pro-locative 代方位词 e
31、g.My shoes is black,so is hers.He studies better than I do.He hopes the exam will be canceled,I hope so.The broom is there,in the corner.Proform:a word can take the place of certain words.第34页，本讲稿共81页 determiners 限定词 pre-determiners 前限定词：all,both,half,twice,3 times central-determiners 中限定词：a,the,thi
32、s,that,these,those post-determiners 后限定词：ordinal numerals,序列词 general ordinals序数词.Determiners:refers to the words which can be used to modify the head noun of a noun phrase.第35页，本讲稿共81页2.Morphology(1)Definition(2)Morpheme:is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit.(3)Morph:each of the phonetic forms
33、 or variants is a morph.allomorph 1.in complementary distribution features 2.have the same/common meaning 3.occur in parallel formation hold the same position 第36页，本讲稿共81页Types of morpheme Free morpheme(root)自由语素：usually carries the basical meaning,can stand by itself as a word.Bound morpheme(affix)
34、黏着语素：it always be a part of a word.Root 词根 Free root morpheme:root that can be used freely,stand by itself.Bound root morpheme:can carry some meaning,but cant be used freely.第37页，本讲稿共81页Free and bound root morpheme:can be used both.Affix:prefix infix suffixInflectional affix/morpheme:just show gramm
35、atical meaning.eg.Teachers learningDerivational affix/morpheme:is an affix which is used to form a derivative.eg.remarry第38页，本讲稿共81页3.Word formation(1)Stem eg.Friendships root suffix stem distempered root suffix stemMonomorphenic 单语素中 stem=root eg:sang第39页，本讲稿共81页stem is the part that is left after
36、removed all the inflectional morphemes.root is the part which is left after all the affixes are removed inflectional affixes derivational affixes(2)Ways of word formationDerivation 派生法（衍生法）：is a way to add affixes to bases to form new words.prefix derivative 衍生词 infix eg.understand-understandable su
37、ffix happy-unhappy 第40页，本讲稿共81页a)Word class unchanged un-happy-unhappy dis-like-dislikeb)Word class changed verb-noun n-verb -er/-or/-ize/-fy compoundinga)Compounds made up of same category n+n-bookstore adj.+adj.-white-hot red-hot prep.+prep.-into within onto uponb)Compounds made up of different ca
38、tegory第41页，本讲稿共81页Part of speech of the compound falls to the 2nd element.eg.Scarecrow 稻草人 n.v.n.Part of speech of the compound falls to 1st element.eg.Brother-in law passer-by looker-onc)The grammatical relationship between the elements of a compound.1.coordinative 并列的 bookstore,deaf-mute,classroom
39、 2.qualifier-head 偏正的 reading-room,snow-white 3.subject-predicate 主谓的 man-made,sunrise,spoon-feed 4.verb+object 动宾的 callgirl,playboy第42页，本讲稿共81页d)Spelling of compounds 1.there is no space.Eg.Football 2.there is a hyphen.Eg.Snow-white 3.there is a space.Eg.Red-light district meaning of the compounds
40、isnt the sum of the meaning of all the elements.Eg.red-meat 牛肉，羊肉 white-lie 善意的谎言 Red-cap 空宪兵 blue-stocking 清高女子 Blue-blood 贵族血统 white elephant 大而不实用东西 Jack Robinson 平常人第43页，本讲稿共81页 conversion:is the way in which we get new words by changing their parts of speech.abbreviation(shortening of clipping)
41、:is the way to make a word shortened or clipped.1.cut the final part.Eg.Photo-photograph 2.cut the initial part 3.cut both the initial and the final part eg.Influenza-flu refrigerator-fridge Back formation eg.To burgle(from burglar)to beg (from beggar)to edit(from editor)to laze (from lazy)第44页，本讲稿共
42、81页 sentence-condensation eg.Touch-me-not stay-at-home forget-me-not blending 1.initial part of 1st+final part of 2nd eg.Motel,smog,botle 2.initial part of two words eg.Digicom digital computer telex teleprinter exchanger onomatopoeia:is the way to form new words by imitating natural sounds.(imitati
43、on&root-creation)第45页，本讲稿共81页 reduplication:refers to the formation of words by reduplicating or repeating sounds.eg.Humpty-dumpty 矮胖的 criss-cross 杂乱的 Acronymization 1.alphabetisms eg.UN 2.words pronounced as common words eg.Laser(lightwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation)11.Analog
44、ical form co-existence of regular and irregular form(for verbs)第46页，本讲稿共81页Chapter six syntax:structure of sentencesSyntax:is a part of the grammar of a language,dealing with the structures of sentences and the rules governing them.1.Paradigmatic rules:refers to the relationships that hold among set
45、s of intersubstitutable linguistic elements at a particular place in s structure.(1)Parts of speech/word class/form class a)words belong to the same parts of speech have some differences.b)one word can belong to different parts of speech.第47页，本讲稿共81页(2)How to judge parts of speech a)accord to meanin
46、g b)distribution position in a sentence c)inflection(3)Grammatical category:grammatical meanings can be classified into different categories,called grammatical categories.In other words,a grammatical category is the classification of grammatical meanings.The commonly found grammatical categories are
47、 person,number,gender case,tense,aspect,voice,mood and so on.第48页，本讲稿共81页1.Person the first person,the second person,the third person the distinction between the three persons may be made by appropriate subjective pronouns.2.Number singular+plural3.Gender masculine+feminine+neuter4.Case nominative 主
48、格 which marks the subject of the sentence accusative 宾格 which marks the object of a transitive verb dative 与格which marks the indirect object ablative 离格 which marks the instrument with which sth is done第49页，本讲稿共81页 genitive 所有格 which marks the possession vocative 呼格 which is the case of addressEg.Ma
49、dam,I wanted to get him the girls book with the card.vocative nominative dative genitive accusative ablativeHow to change case?1.Inflectional ending.Eg.teacher-teachers2.Distribution/position.Word order eg.John bite John.John bite Tom.3.According to the verb and preposition eg.Ill go with the boy.第5
50、0页，本讲稿共81页5.Tense past present future6.Aspect perfect progressive non-progressive verb=stative verb eg.Know,hate,love,believe,have7.Voice active voice+passive voice passivization:a)the active subject passive agent b)the active object passive subject c)the prep.“by”is introduced before the agent第51页，