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1、Good is good, but better carries it.精益求精，善益求善。为什么要学西方历史文化-1.Whyshouldstudywesterncivilization?ThislecturehelpsyoutoconquerRomebydividingRomanhistory,culture,andlegacyintofiveparts.Althoughthepartsfollowaroughchronologicalorder,theyoverlapabitastheyreferbackandforth.PartI.givesyounecessarybackgroundf
2、orstudyingtheRomansbylayingoutmajorperiodsofhistoryandsettingthestageintheMediterraneanforRomesrise.Italsoprovidesthumbnailanswerstosome“frequentlyaskedquestions”anddirectsyoutomoreinformationelsewhereinthebook.Inourfast-forwardworld,youdthinkthattheancientpastwouldbetooobscure,tooremote,andtooforei
3、gntobeofrelevance.Nowadaysthepresentseemsobsolete.Andyet,ancientcivilizationscaptivateus.Why?在我们这个飞速发展的世界里，你一定会认为古代世界过于朦胧，过于遥远，过于陌生，与我们没有太大的关系。如今，眼下正流行的事物似乎很快就会过时。然而，古代文明却能让我们迷恋不已。这是问什么呢？Well,inpart,wearedrawnbysimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweentheseculturesandourown.Itsreallyinterestingtoseehowother
4、peoplelived,worked,fought,andloved.Ancientcivilizationsoftenconfrontuswithdifferencessostarkthattheyshock,delight,andappallus.Asremoteassomeaspectsofthesecivilizationsare,isntitengagingthattheywerestillpeople?Bothsimilaritiesanddifferencesspeaktothehumancondition,andwhatitmeanstoliveasamemberofthehu
5、manrace.其实，古代文化与现代文化之间的相似之处和差异，在一定程度上吸引着我们。了解一下其它民族如何生活，如何工作，如何战斗，如何相爱，真的是一件很有趣的事情。我们所面对的古代文明是那么不同，常常会使我们感到震惊或恐惧，但有时也会让我们感到欣喜。尽管古代文明的某些方面离现在已经很遥远了，但其深远的影响依然存在。无论是相似之处还是不同之处，所涉及的都是人类状况和人类社会成员的生活意义。Inaddition,wesometimeslooktoancientcivilizationsformodels.Welikepatterns,andinacomplicatedworld,itwouldb
6、ehelpfultofindmodelsforsolving(oravoiding)someofourownproblemsandtopredictwhatmighthappennext.Humanshavebeenattheworkofbeinghumansforalongtime.Perhapssomeonealreadyfiguredoutoneofourproblems,ortriedsimilarsolutionstothem.此外，我们经常希望从古代文明那里寻找模式。我们喜欢模式，尤其是在一个复杂的世界里，利用现成的模式解决（或规避）我们自己的一些问题或预测以后会再现的什么问题，都
7、是很有益处的。人类社会在地球上已经存在很长时间了，我们的问题也许早已有人解决过或者采用过类似的解决方法。Finally,wesometimeslookbacktobetterunderstandhowthingsgotthewaytheyare.Sometimeswejustdontknow;othertimesitbecomesclearthatourunderstandinghasbeenbluntedbystereotypes,generalizations,andinaccurateideas.Aswelookcloser,generalizationsbegintoyieldtoam
8、orecomplicatedpicturethantheonewebeganwith.Sometimesthatoriginalpicturechangesalot,andsometimesitstaysprettymuchthesame,butinquiryalwaysproducesamoreaccurate,insightful,andsatisfyingunderstanding.最后，我们有时还须回顾过去，以便更好地理解事情是如何发生的。有些时候我们只是不知道；而有些时候显然是由于过于陈腐的观念，根据不足的推论和不准确的思想，才导致我们在理解方面的迟钝。当我我们近一些观察时，概括就会
9、开始让步与一个更为复杂的概念。有时最初的印象改变了许多，有时印象则几乎保持不变，但是探索总能形成一个更为准确、更为深刻、更令人满意的理解。Youmayhearpeopleobject,whatcanthepastofferusanyway?Historyiswrittenbytheconquerors;thesamepeoplehavebeeninchargeofthesamethingssincetheBronzeAge.Suchstereotypesandgeneralizationsdeservetogointhetrashbinofhistoryalongwiththemanyothe
10、rsthatelicitedsuchremarksinthefirstplace.Fortunatelyforallofus,itsmuchmorecomplicated,muchmoreinteresting,andmuchmoreimportantthanthat.也许你听到人们不赞成这种说法，过去到底能为我们提供什么呢？历史是由胜利者书写的；自青铜器时代起就是如此。这样的陈词滥调和推论，连同其它很多由此引发的议论都应该扔进历史的垃圾堆里。让我们大家感到幸运的是，历史具有相当大的复杂性、趣味性和重要性。Whetherwelikeitornot,whatwehavenow,whatwekno
11、wnow,andwhowearenowallhavepasts,andthosepastsmatter.ThatslargelywhyIwrotethisbook,andIhopethatthisperspectiveshows.Institutions,ideas,andwaysoflookingattheworldhavejustasmuchofagenealogyaspeopledo.Butunlikeourphysicalcharacteristics,whichwecansee,weareoftenunawarethatwehavealsoinheritedbroadassumpti
12、onsabouttime,purpose,organization,culturalhabits,andourselves.Aslongasweseethingsfromoneperspective,itsnowonderthatsomethingsseemobviousandsomethingssostrange.无论我们是否喜欢，我们现在拥有的、我们现在知道的以及我们自己本身都有过去，而这些过去对我们来说十分重要。人们看待世界与看待一份宗谱的习俗、概念和方式十分相似。但是与我们能够看得见的物质特征不同，我们往往没有意识到自己还继承了时间、目的、组织、文化习惯等方面的广泛假定。只要我们从一个
13、角度看待事物，有些事情似乎显而易见，而有些事情则非常不可思议，这没有什么可奇怪的。Hopefully,theprocessofeducation(thatsfromtheLatineducare,“toraiseup”)takesusoutofourownperspective,notnecessarilytochangeitbuttomatureit.Inthebestcase,educationshowsuswhereourperspectivescomefromandhowtheyrelateandinterrelatewithothers.Inanycase,wecanundersta
14、ndagreatdealaboutwhereweareandwhereweregoingfromappreciatingwherewevebeenandhowwegothere.Ityoureinterestedinwhereyouareandhowyougothere,agoodpartoftheanswerwouldinevitablyinvolvetheGreeksandtheRomans.好在教育过程（教育这个词起源于拉丁语educare,意思是“培养”）能使我们端正自己的态度，不一定是去改变，去完善。最好的情况是，教育可以说明我们的观点是从哪里来的，这些观点与其它观点是如何相互关联的
15、，不管怎样，充分领会我们的过去和现在，我们能够在极大程度上理解自己的现状和未来。假如你对这些问题感兴趣的话，相当多的答案不可避免地要涉及古希腊、古罗马人。Imnotsayingthatweareboundbyhistory.Weallknowthesayingthatgoes(usuallyinadroningmonotone)somethinglikethis:“Thosewhodonotunderstandthemistakesofthepastaredoomedtorepeatthem.”YoumightbesurprisedtodiscoverthatIdontpreciselyagr
16、ee.Ourproblemsareverymuchourown.Thepastdoesnotprovideuswithreadyanswerstothem,atleastifyouthinkofthepastasalistofquickanswersinthebackofthe“CurrentProblems”textbook.我并不是说我们收到历史的束缚。我们都知道有这样一句老话“不懂得丛历史错误中吸取教训的人，注定会重犯历史的错误。”也许你感到惊讶，我并不完全同意这种说法。我们的问题在学多方面是我们自己的。无论如何，历史不会向我们提供现成的解决问题的方法，至少我们不能把过去看作是“现时问题
17、”教科书附录的答案一览表。Nevertheless,whenyoustudythepastindepthyoucometotherealizationthat,althoughthespecificschange,peoplehavebeencopingwiththesamekindsofproblemsforaverylongtime.Familytensions,politicalandsocialproblems,environmentalissues,economicpolicy,moraldilemmas-ifwerewonderingaboutorlaughingaboutorst
18、rugglingwithsomethingnow,itsafairebetthatothershavebeeninthesameboatinthepast.Now,thatboatmayhavehadoursandnoGlobalPositioningSystem,butthequestionof“Whereintheheckareweandwherearewegoing?”hasremainedthesame.不过，当你深入研究历史的时候，你就会认识到，尽管细节有所改变，长期以来人们一直在应付着相同的问题。家庭纠纷、政治和社会问题、环境问题，经济政策、道德教育的难题假如我们肯定地讲，过去的人
19、们也在做着与此相同的是。古时候的船也许只有浆，没有全球定位系统，但是“现状与未来”这样的问题自古至今都是一样的。Ancientculturesfascinateandentertainusformanyreasons,andunderstandingthembenefitsusinmanyways.Whenweseehowpastpeoplesmetcommonchallengesandwheretheirpastconnectswithourpresent,ancientcivilizationsbecomebothfascinatingandrelevant.Illdomybestinth
20、isbooktogiveyouanaccuratepictureoftheRomans,andmakeleaningaboutthisinfluentialancientpeoplebothworthwhileandentertaining.我们喜爱和迷恋古代文化的原因很多，而对古代文化的理解也会让我们在许多方面受益。看一看过去的人们是如何共同迎接挑战的，现在与过去的联结点是在哪里。古代文明不仅令人神往，而且与我们有重大关系。2.WhatIsHistory?Whatishistory?Thisquestionmayseemreallyeasy,evensilly.Mostpeoplewould
21、saythathistoryisthestudyoftheimportantpeople,dates,andeventsofthepast.Thisansweristrueasfarasitgoes.Butwhodecideswhatpeople,dates,andeventsareimportant?Andwhyshouldwebotherlearningaboutthem?Letsdigalittledeeperintothequestion“Whatishistory?”Firstofall,historyisanimportantwayofthinkingabouttheworld.T
22、oseewhatthismeans,imaginewakinguptomorrowandnotbeingabletorememberasinglethingaboutyourpast.Youcantrememberyourname,whomyourparentsorfamilymembersare,therulestoyourfavoritegame,oranythingyoueverlearnedinschool.Withoutknowledgeofyourownpast,youmightfeellostandlonely.Youwouldntevenknowwhoyouare.Andyou
23、wouldhaveadifficulttimemakinggooddecisionsaboutwhattodonext.Inasimilarway,historyhelpsusmakesenseoftheworld.Historyisthememoryofcommunities,peoples,andnations.Withouthistory,individualsandwholecountrieswouldlosetheirsenseofdirection.ThenexttimeyouwatchthenewsonTV,noticehowoftenreporters,politicians,
24、andothersmentionsomethingaboutthepast.Humansconstantlyusetheirknowledgeofthepasttohelpthemmakesenseofwhatishappeningtoday.Historyisalsoanacademicdiscipline.Itisasystematicwayofusingevidencetomakesenseofthepast.Whenyouthinkaboutit,thepastisnotaneasythingtostudy.Afterall,itsnothereanylongerforanyoneto
25、observedirectly.Sohistoriansturntomanykindsofevidencetodescribeandunderstandthepast.Theyrefascinatedbyolddocuments,maps,tools,ruins,andmanyotherkindsofevidence.Theywanttoknowwhocreatedthesethingsandforwhatreason,andwhattheycanteachusaboutthepast.HistoryasanOngoingArgumentSomepeoplethinkthathistoryis
26、justalistingoffacts.Thatisnottrue.Tomakesenseofthepast,historiansmustweightheavailableevidenceandtrytofigureoutwhatthefactsare.Thentheyneedtostitchthefactstogethertoanswerthequestionsthatinterestthem.Indoingthis,theymustusetheirjudgment.Andthatmeansthattheirownviewpointscomeintoplay.Asaresult,histor
27、iansargueallthetime.Theyargueaboutwhatthefactsreallyare.Theyalsoargueabouthowtointerpretthefacts.History,then,ismuchmorethanalistingof“facts.”Somepeoplehaveevendescribedhistoryasanongoingargumentaboutthepast.Whydoestheargumentgoon?Sometimeshistoriansfindnewevidence,suchasanancientdocumentoranewarche
28、ologicaldiscovery.Thenewevidencemayleadthemtochallengeoldinterpretations.Sometimeshistorianstakeafreshlookatexistingevidenceandseethingsthatothershaveoverlooked.Astheydoso,theymaycorrectanearlierhistorianserrororexplaineventsinadifferentway.ReadingHistoryOurdiscussionleadstosomekeypointsabouthowtore
29、adhistory.Youcantjustassumethatwhatyourereadingisthefinaltruth.Ifyoureadmorethanoneversionofhistory,youarelikelytofinddifferences.Sowhenyoureadhistory,askyourselfthesequestions: Whowrotethisdocument? Whenwasitwritten? Whatkindsofevidencedoestheauthoruse? Istheevidencereliable? Istheauthortryingtopro
30、moteaparticularviewpoint?AnExampleofaHistoricalArgumentLetslookatoneexampleofahistoricalargument.InHistoryAlive!TheMedievalWorldandBeyond,youwilllearnabouttheScientificRevolution.MosttextbookssaythattheScientificRevolutionbeganinWesternEuropewithamannamedCopernicus.Intheearly1500s,Copernicusproposed
31、astartlingidea.Inhisday,mostpeoplebelievedthatEarthwasthecenteroftheuniverse,andthatitdidntmove.CopernicussuggestedthatEarthandtheotherplanetstravelaroundthesun.HowdidCopernicuscomeupwithhisidea?TextbookswilltellyouthathestudiedtheworkofamannamedPtolemy.Ptolemyhaddescribedapictureoftheuniversebackin
32、thesecondcenturyc.e.InPtolemysdescription,Earthwasthecenteroftheuniverse.ButPtolemyhadtroubleexplainingtheobservedmotionsoftheplanetsintheheavens.Tomakehispictureoftheuniversework,hehadtobuildanumberofcomplicationsintohistheory.CopernicusthoughtthatPtolemysaccountwasoverlycomplicated.Hearguedthatthi
33、ngsfellintoplacemoresimplyifEarthandotherplanetstraveledaroundthesun.TodayweknowthatCopernicuswascorrect,andheisoftenhonoredasthefatheroftheScientificRevolution.Thatsaneatandtidystory.Butisitthewholestory?SomehistorianshavepointedoutthatCopernicusmaynothavecomeupwithhisideascompletelyonhisown.Instea
34、d,hemayhavefoundimportantcluesintheworkofMuslimscientists.MuslimsarefollowersofIslam,oneoftheworldsgreatreligions.InHistoryAlive!TheMedievalWorldandBeyond,youwilllearnthatMuslimsbuiltanadvancedcultureduringtheMiddleAges.AfterthefallofRome,learningdeclinedinWesternEurope.ButintheMiddleEastandSpain,Mu
35、slimscholarspreservedancienttexts,includingtheworksofPtolemy.EventuallytheypassedonmuchofthislearningtoWesternEurope.Muslimscholarsalsomademanyadvancesoftheirown.And,accordingtosomehistorians,theworkofaMuslimscholarmayhaveinspiredCopernicus.TheMuslimscholarwasIbnal-Shatir.Writinginthe14thcentury,hen
36、otedsomeoftheproblemsinPtolemystheory.HismathematicalargumentsareveryclosetosomethatCopernicususedlateron.HistoriansknowthatIbnal-ShatirstextfounditswaytoRomesometimeinthe1400s.Whatsmore,CopernicusoncestudiedinRome.Thesefactsraiseaninterestingpossibility.DidCopernicusseeIbnal-Shatirswork?Ifso,didheu
37、seitincriticizingPtolemy?OrdidCopernicusjusthappentocomeupwiththesameideas?CopernicusswritingsdontmentionIbnal-Shatir.SowelackproofthatheknewabouttheMuslimscientistswork.Whatwehavearetwofacts,plussomelogic.ThefirstfactisthataMuslimtextcloselyresemblessomeofwhatCopernicusdid.ThesecondfactisthatCopern
38、icuscouldhaveseenthistext.Thelogicalargumentisthatthesimilarityisnotacoincidence.Inotherwords,itislikelythatCopernicuslearnedfromIbnal-Shatirswork.Somehistoriansfavorthisargument.OthersarguethatCopernicuscouldhavecomeupwithhisideasonhisown.Theypointoutthatthehistoryofsciencehasmanyexamplesofdiscover
39、iesbeingmadeindependentlybydifferentpeople.Thisisthewayhistoryoftenworks.Sometimestheevidencedoesntallowustosayforsurewhathappened.Thenweareleftwithprobabilities-whatismoreorlesslikely.Inreadinghistory,itsuptoustolookattheevidenceandtheargumentsandtomakeourbestjudgmentaboutwhoisright.ConclusionWesta
40、rtedwithasimplequestion:Whatishistory?Asyouhaveseen,thisquestionhasmanyanswers.Historyisastudyofthepast.Itisawayofmakingsenseoftheworld.Itisanacademicdiscipline.Itisacombinationoffactsandinterpretationsoffacts.Itisalsoanongoingargumentthatchangesasnewevidenceisuncovered.Andthatisthemostexcitingthing
41、ofall,becauseitmeansthathistoryisverymuchalive.EnrichmentActivityDiscussthesequestionswithapartner,inasmallgroup,orwithyourclass.1.Whatishistory?2.Ishistoryjustalistingofthefacts?Whyorwhynot?3.Whymighttwodifferenthistorianscomeupwithdifferentversionsofthepast?4.Whatistheroleofchance,oversight,anderrorinthewritingofhistory?5.Whyarehistoricalinterpretationssubjecttochange?6.HowdoestheexampleofCopernicusshowwhyitisimportanttoquestionandevaluatethehistoryweread?-