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1、What is English?Histoory oof thhe Ennglissh LaanguaageA shoort hhistoory oof thhe orriginns annd deeveloopmennt off EngglishhThe hhistoory oof thhe Ennglissh laanguaage rreallly sttarteed wiith tthe aarrivval oof thhree Germmanicc triibes who invaaded Brittain duriing tthe 55th ccentuury AAD. TThese
2、e triibes, thee Anggles, thee Saxxons and the Jutees, ccrosssed tthe NNorthh Seaa froom whhat ttodayy is Denmmark and nortthernn Gerrmanyy. Att thaat tiime tthe iinhabbitannts oof Brritaiin sppoke a Ceelticc lannguagge. BBut mmost of tthe CCeltiic sppeakeers wwere pushhed wwest and nortth byy thee i
3、nvvaderrs - mainnly iinto whatt is now Walees, Scootlannd annd Irrelannd. TThe AAnglees caame ffrom Engllalannd annd thheir langguagee wass callled Engllisc - frrom wwhichh thee worrds EEnglaand aand EEngliish aare dderivved.Germaanic invaaderss entteredd Briitainn on the eastt andd souuth ccoastts
4、inn thee 5thh cennturyy.Old EEngliish (450-11000 AD)Part of BBeowuulf, a pooem wwrittten iin Olld Ennglissh.The iinvadding Germmanicc triibes spokke siimilaar laanguaages, whiich iin Brritaiin deevelooped intoo whaat wee noww calll Olld Ennglissh. OOld EEngliish ddid nnot ssoundd or lookk likke Enng
5、lissh tooday. Nattive Engllish speaakerss noww wouuld hhave greaat diifficcultyy unddersttandiing OOld EEngliish. Neveertheelesss, abbout halff of the mostt commmonlly ussed wwordss in Modeern EEngliish hhave Old Engllish rootts. TThe wwordss be, strrong and wateer, ffor eexampple, deriive ffrom Old
6、 Engllish. Oldd Engglishh wass spooken untiil arroundd 11000. Middlle Ennglissh (11100-15000)An exxamplle off Midddle Engllish by CChauccer.In 10066 WWilliiam tthe CConquuerorr, thhe Duuke oof Noormanndy (partt of modeern FFrancce), invaaded and conqquereed Ennglannd. TThe nnew cconquuerorrs (ccalle
7、ed thhe Noormanns) bbrougght wwith themm a kkind of FFrencch, wwhichh beccame the langguagee of the Royaal Coourt, andd thee rulling and busiinesss claassess. Foor a periiod ttheree wass a kkind of llinguuistiic cllass diviisionn, whhere the loweer cllassees sppoke Engllish and the uppeer cllassees
8、sppoke Frennch. In tthe 114th centtury Engllish becaame ddominnant in BBritaain aagainn, buut wiith mmany Frennch wwordss addded. Thiss lannguagge iss callled Midddle EEngliish. It wwas tthe llanguuage of tthe ggreatt poeet Chhauceer (cc13400-14000), but it wwouldd stiill bbe diifficcult for natiive
9、 EEngliish sspeakkers to uunderrstannd tooday. Moderrn EnnglisshEarlyy Moddern Engllish (15000-18800)Hamleets famoous To bbe, oor noot too be linnes, writtten in EEarlyy Moddern Engllish by SShakeespeaare.Towarrds tthe eend oof Miiddlee Engglishh, a suddden aand ddistiinct channge iin prronunnciatti
10、on (thee Greeat VVowell Shiift) starrted, witth voowelss beiing ppronoounceed shhorteer annd shhorteer. FFrom the 16thh cennturyy thee Briitishh hadd conntactt witth maany ppeoplles ffrom arouund tthe wworldd. Thhis, and the Renaaissaance of CClasssicall leaarninng, mmeantt thaat maany nnew wwordss
11、andd phrrasess entteredd thee lannguagge. TThe iinvenntionn of prinntingg alsso meeant thatt theere wwas nnow aa commmon langguagee in prinnt. BBookss beccame cheaaper and moree peoople learrned to rread. Priintinng allso bbrougght sstanddardiizatiion tto Ennglissh. SSpellling and grammmar becaame f
12、fixedd, annd thhe diialecct off Lonndon, wheere mmost publlishiing hhousees weere, becaame tthe sstanddard. In 16044 thee firrst EEngliish ddictiionarry waas puublisshed.Late Modeern EEngliish (18000-Preesentt)The mmain diffferennce bbetweeen EEarlyy Moddern Engllish and Latee Moddern Engllish is vv
13、ocabbularry. LLate Modeern EEngliish hhas mmany moree worrds, arissing fromm twoo priincippal ffactoors: firsstly, thee Inddustrrial Revoolutiion aand ttechnnologgy crreateed a needd forr neww worrds; secoondlyy, thhe Brritissh Emmpiree at its heigght ccoverred oone qquartter oof thhe eaarths suurfa
14、cce, aand tthe EEngliish llanguuage adoppted foreeign wordds frrom mmany counntriees.Varieetiess of EngllishFrom arouund 11600, thee Engglishh collonizzatioon off Norrth AAmeriica rresullted in tthe ccreattion of aa disstincct Ammericcan vvarieety oof Ennglissh. SSome Engllish pronnunciiatioons aand
15、 wwordss frroze wheen thhey rreachhed AAmeriica. In ssome wayss, Ammericcan EEngliish iis moore llike the Engllish of SShakeespeaare tthan modeern BBritiish EEngliish iis. SSome exprressiions thatt thee Briitishh calll AAmeriicaniisms aree in factt oriiginaal Brritissh exxpresssionns thhat wwere pre
16、sserveed inn thee colloniees whhile lostt forr a ttime in BBritaain (for exammple trassh foor ruubbissh, lloan as aa verrb innsteaad off lennd, aand ffall for autuumn; anotther exammple, fraame-uup, wwas rre-immportted iinto Brittain throough Holllywoood gaangstter mmoviees). Spannish alsoo hadd an
17、inflluencce onn Ameericaan Ennglissh (aand ssubseequenntly Brittish Engllish), wiith wwordss likke caanyonn, rannch, stammpedee andd viggilannte bbeingg exaamplees off Spaanishh worrds tthat enteered Engllish throough the setttlemeent oof thhe Ammericcan WWest. Freench wordds (tthrouugh LLouissianaa
18、) annd Weest AAfriccan wwordss (thhrouggh thhe sllave tradde) aalso inflluencced AAmeriican Engllish (andd so, to an eextennt, BBritiish EEngliish).Todayy, Ammericcan EEngliish iis paarticcularrly iinfluuentiial, due to tthe UUSAss domminannce oof ciinemaa, teeleviisionn, poopulaar muusic, traade aa
19、nd ttechnnologgy (iincluudingg thee Intterneet). But therre arre maany ootherr varrietiies oof Ennglissh arroundd thee worrld, inclludinng foor exxamplle Auustraaliann Engglishh, Neew Zeealannd Ennglissh, CCanaddian Engllish, Souuth AAfriccan EEngliish, Indiian EEngliish aand CCaribbbeann Engglishh.
20、The GGermaanic Famiily oof LaanguaagesEEngliish iis a membber oof thhe Geermannic ffamilly off lannguagges.GGermaanic is aa braanch of tthe IIndo-Euroopeann lannguagge faamilyy.A briief cchronnologgy off EngglishhBC 555Romann invvasioon off Briitainn by Juliius CCaesaar.Locall inhhabittantss speeak
21、CCeltiishBC 433Romann invvasioon annd occcupaationn. Beeginnning of RRomann rulle off Briitainn.436Romann witthdraawal fromm Briitainn commplette.449Settllemennt off Briitainn by Germmanicc invvaderrs beeginss450-4480Earliiest knowwn Olld Ennglissh innscriiptioons.Old EEngliish1066Williiam tthe CCon
22、quuerorr, Duuke oof Noormanndy, invaades and conqquerss Engglandd.c11500Earliiest survvivinng maanusccriptts inn Midddle Engllish.Middlle Ennglissh1348Engliish rreplaaces Latiin ass thee lannguagge off insstrucctionn in mostt schhoolss.1362Engliish rreplaaces Frennch aas thhe laanguaage oof laaw. EE
23、ngliish iis ussed iin Paarliaamentt forr thee firrst ttime.c13888Chauccer sstartts wrritinng Thhe Caanterrburyy Talles.c14000The GGreatt Vowwel SShiftt beggins.1476Williiam CCaxtoon esstabllishees thhe fiirst Engllish prinntingg preess.Earlyy Moddern Engllish1564Shakeespeaare iis boorn.1604Tablee Al
24、pphabeeticaall, the firsst Ennglissh diictioonaryy, iss pubblishhed.1607The ffirstt perrmaneent EEngliish ssettllemennt inn thee Neww Worrld (Jameestowwn) iis esstabllisheed.1616Shakeespeaare ddies.1623Shakeespeaaress Firrst FFolioo is publlisheed1702The ffirstt daiily EEngliish-llanguuage newsspape
25、er, TThe DDailyy Couurantt, iss pubblishhed iin Loondonn.1755Samueel Joohnsoon puublisshes his Engllish dicttionaary.1776Thomaas Jeefferrson writtes tthe AAmeriican Decllarattion of IIndeppendeence.1782Britaain abanndonss itss Ameericaan cooloniies.1828Webstter ppubliishess hiss Ameericaan Ennglissh
26、 diictioonaryy.Late Modeern EEngliish1922The BBritiish BBroaddcastting Corpporattion is ffoundded.1928The OOxforrd Ennglissh Diictioonaryy is publlisheed.Charlles IIWhen Charrles I suucceeeded his fathher iin 16625, fricctionn witth Paarliaamentt beggan aat onnce. Charrles beliievedd in his diviine
27、rrightt as kingg andd strrugglled tto coontrool Paarliaamentt whoo ressenteed hiis atttemppts aat abbsoluute rrule. Onee of his firsst accts wwas tto diissollve pparliiamennt inn 16225, aand aagainn in 16266 aftter aattemmpts to iimpeaach tthe DDuke of BBuckiinghaam ovver wwar aagainnst SSpainn andd
28、 suppportt of the Frennch HHugueenotss. Chharlees foorcedd an unpoopulaar SShip Moneey ttax tto raaise fundds wiithouut thhe coonsennt off Parrliamment. In 16288 Chaarless wass preesentted wwith the Petiitionn of Righht a decllarattion of tthe “rrightts annd liibertties of tthe ssubjeect, whiich hhe
29、 reelucttantlly aggreedd to. Howweverr, inn 16229 hee disssolvved PParliiamennt aggain, impprisooned its leadders and ruleed wiithouut a Parlliameent ffrom 16299 to 16400. Hiis addviseers EEarl Straafforrd annd Arrchbiishopp Lauud peerseccutedd thee Purritanns, aand pprovooked the Pressbyteeriann Sc
30、oots CCovennanteers tto reevoltt wheen Laaud aattemmptedd to intrroducce thhe Ennglissh Boook oof Coommonn Praayer.The Shorrt Paarliaamentt, whhich met Apriil 16640, refuused to ggrantt monney uuntill griievannces weree reddresssed, and was disssolveed affter justt 3 wweekss. Thhe Sccots thenn advva
31、nceed innto EEnglaand aand fforceed thheir own termms onn Chaarless. Thhe Loong PParliiamennt asssembbled undeer inn Novvembeer 16640 uunderr Johhn Pyym, ppasseed ann Actt thaat prrevennted it ffrom beinng diissollved withhout its own conssent. Lauud annd otther miniisterrs weere iimpriisoneed, aand
32、 SStrafffordd conndemnned tto deeath. Theere wwas nnow ddirecct coonfroontattion betwween Charrles and Parlliameent. Afteer thhe faailurre off hiss atttemptt to arreest ffive parlliameentarry leeaderrs onn 4 JJanuaary 11642, Chaarless, coonfiddent thatt he had subsstanttial suppport amonng thhose wh
33、o beliievedd thaat Paarliaamentt wass beccominng tooo Puuritaanicaal annd zeealouus, wwithddrew fromm Lonndon, andd on 22 AAugusst deeclarred wwar oon Paarliaamentt by raissing his stanndardd at Notttinghham aand bbeginnningg thee Engglishh Civvil WWar oof 16642 tto 16648.The cchangging facee of the
34、 Unitted KKingddom.The UUniteed Kiingdoomiss a uunionn of fourr terrritooriess or natiions: Engglandd, Norrtherrn Irrelannd, Scootlannd annd Waales. It is aa connstittutioonal monaarchyy witth Quueen Elizzabetth III as the Headd of Statte.Devollutioon tiimeliineMiddlle Agges: In 11404, Walles bbrief
35、fly hhad iits oown pparliiamennt unnder Owaiin Gllyndwwr.TTheLLaws in WWaless Actts, ppasseed beetweeen 15535 aand 11542, madde Waales partt of Englland.1603: Thee Engglishh andd Scoottissh crrownss uniited withh thee acccessiion oof Jaames VI oof Sccotlaand tto thhe Ennglissh thhronee, ass Jammes I
36、I.1707: Thee Treeaty (or Act)of Unioon unnitedd thee parrliammentss of Englland and Scottlandd to formm a ssinglle paarliaamentt meeetingg in Westtminsster. Thee twoo nattionss forrmed Thee Uniited Kinggdom of GGreatt Briitainn.1800: Thee Iriish PParliiamennt vooted to jjoin theUnitted KKingddom oof
37、 Grreat Brittain in tthe AAct oof Unnion(Ireelandd) - creaatingg Thhe Unnitedd Kinngdomm of Greaat Brritaiin anndIrrelannd.1886: A sseriees off Billls tto giive HHome Rulee to Irelland weree inttroduuced at WWestmminstter.1920: Thee fouurth Homee Rulle Acct waas paassedd, efffecttivellycrreatiing tt
38、wo sstatees onn thee islland of IIrelaand. NortthernnIreelanddwass esttabliishedd in six of tthe nnine counntiess of the provvincee of Ulstter aand bbecamme ann enttity withhin tthe UUK. 1921: Norrtherrn Irrelannds own parlliameent ccame intoo beiing. 1922: Thee Iriish FFree Statte (llaterr thee Rep
39、publiic off Ireelandd) waas esstabllisheed. NNorthhern Irelland chosse too remmain in tthe UUniteed Kiingdoom.1925: Plaaid GGeneddlaetthol Cymrru, tthe NNatioonal Partty off Walles, was formmed wwith the goall of secuuringg, ammongsst otther thinngs, a Weelsh-speaakingg Walles. 1934: Thee Scoottissh
40、 Naationnal PPartyy (SNNP) wwas fformeed,ffrom the mergger oof thhe Naationnal PPartyy of Scottlandd andd thee Scoottissh Paarty.1950ss: Thhe Laabourr Parrty ggraduuallyy repplaceed thhe Liiberaal Paarty as tthe ddominnant poliiticaal foorce in WWaless.1960ss - 770s: Demaands for Scotttishh Homme Ru
41、ule, or ddevollutioon, ggaineed sttrenggth aafterr SNPP eleectioon annd byy-eleectioon viictorries. In Walees, tthe sstrenngth of tthe UUK Laabourr Parrty, espeeciallly iin thhe soouth of tthe ccounttry, meannt thhat tthe ppolitticall imppetuss forr devvoluttion was alwaays wweakeer thhan iin Sccotl
42、aand.1972: Norrtherrn Irrelannd paarliaamentt wass susspendded aand aaboliishedd thee folllowiing yyear in ffavouur off dirrect rulee froom Weestmiinsteer.1979: Devvoluttion refeerenddums weree helld inn Scootlannd annd Waales. In Scottlandd, thhe reefereendumm faiiled: altthouggh a majoorityyvotted
43、 yes, thhere was onlyy a332% tturnoout aand tthe rruless reqquireed att leaast 440% oof thhe ellectooratee to votee forr devvoluttion. In Walees, tthe rreferrenduum reesultted iin a no votte.1997: Labbour won the Geneeral Elecctionn andd impplemeentedd itss mannifessto ppledgge too havve reefereendu
44、mms onn devvoluttion in SScotlland and Walees.1998: Devvoluttion refeerenddums in SScotlland and Walees prroducced yes vottes. The Scotttishh Parrliamment retuurnedd to Edinnburggh annd thhe Naationnal AAssemmbly for Walees (aat thhat ttime callled tthe WWelshh Asssemblly) wwas ffoundded.1998:Thee G
45、oood Frridayy Agrreemeent rrevivved tthe pprosppect of aa retturn of ddevollved goveernmeent tto Noortheern IIrelaand, settting up ttheNNorthhern Irelland Asseemblyy andd powwer sshariing EExecuutivee.2006: Devvoluttion was exteendedd in Walees.2007: Folllowiing sseverral ssuspeensioons oof deevoluu
46、tionn,thhe Noortheern IIrelaand AAssemmbly and Execcutivve weere rrestoored in NNorthhern Irelland.KnighhthooodKnighhthoood waas abbout moree thaan juust ffightting, it was alsoo aboout cchivaalry. At the begiinninng off thee Midddle Agess, thhis mmeantt goood hoorsemmanshhip, but by 11100 it hhad b
47、becomme a wholle neew waay off liffe. KKnighhts wwere expeectedd to be bbravee, annd hoonoraable, to uphoold tthe hhonorr of womeen, aand tto prrotecct thhe weeak. Talees off chiivalrry weere vvery popuular duriing tthe MMiddlle Agges, but evenn so, manny knnightts faailedd to livee up to tthesee higgh sttandaards.This was justt thee begginniing oof thhe yoou