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1、-电气类英文翻译-电力系统的演化-第 7 页EVOLUTION OF ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS The commercial use of electricity began in the late1870s when arc lamps were used for lighthouse illumination and street lighting. The first complete electric power system (comprising a generator, cable, fuse, meter, and loads)was built by Th
2、omas Edison-the historic Pearl Street Station in New York City which began operation in September 1882.This was a dc system consisting of a steam-engine-driven dc generator supplying power to 59 customers within an area roughly 1.5km in radios. The load, which consisted entirely of incandescent lamp
3、s, was supplied at 110 V through an underground cable system. Within a few years similar systems were in operation in most large cities throughout the world. With the development of motors by Frank Sprague in 1884, motor loads were added to such systems. This was the beginning of what would develop
4、into one of the largest industries in the world. In spite of the initial widespread use of dc systems, they were almost completely superseded by ac systems. By 1886, the limitations of dc systems were becoming increasingly apparent .They could deliver power only a short distance from the generators.
5、 To keep transmission power losers (RI2) and voltage drops to acceptable levels, voltage levels had to be high for long-distance power transmission. Such high voltages were not acceptable for generation and consumption of power; therefore, a convenient means for voltage transformation became a neces
6、sity. The development of the transformation and ac transmission by L. Gaulard and J.D. Gibbs of Paris, France, led to ac electric power systems. George Westinghouse secured rights to these developments in the United States. In 1886, William Stanley, an associate of Westinghouse, developed and tested
7、 a commercially practical transformer and ac distribution system for 150 lamps at Great Barrington, Massachusetts. In 1889, the first ac transmission line in North America was put into operation in Oregon between Willamette Falls and Portland. It was a single-phase line transmitting power at 4,000 V
8、 over a distance of 21 km. With the development of polyphase systems by Nikolas Tesla, the ac system became even more attractive. By 1888, Tesla held several patents on ac motors, generators, transformers, and transmission systems. Westinghouse bought the patents to these early inventions, and they
9、formed the basis of the present-day ac systems. In the 1890s, there was considerable controversy over whether the electric utility industry should be standardized on dc or ac. There were passionate arguments between Edison, who advocated dc, and Westinghouse, who favored ac. By the turn of the centu
10、ry, the ac system had won out over the dc system for the following reasons;l Voltage levels can be easily transformed in ac systems, thus providing the flexibility for use of different voltages for generation, transmission, and consumption.l AC generators are much simpler than dc generators.l AC mot
11、ors are much simpler and cheaper than dc motors.The first three-phase line in North America went into operation in 1893-a 2,300 V, 12 km line in southern California. Around this time, ac was chosen at Niagara Falls because dc was not practical for transmitting power to Buffalo, about 30 km away. Thi
12、s decision ended the ac versus dc controversy and established victory for the ac system. In the early period of ac power transmission, frequency was not standardized. Many different frequencies were in use: 25, 50, 60, 125, and 133 Hz. This posed a problem for interconnection. Eventually 60 Hz was a
13、dopted as standard in North America, although many other countries use 50 Hz. The increasing need for transmitting larger amounts of power over longer distances created an incentive to use progressively higher voltage levels. The early ac systems used 12,44, and 60 kV(RMS line-to-line).This rose to
14、165 kV in 1922,220 kV in 1923,287 kV in 1935,330 kV in 1953,and 765 kV was introduced in the United States in 1969. To avoid the proliferation of an unlimited number of voltages, the industry has standardized voltage levels. The standards are 115, 138, 161, and 230 kV for the high voltage (HV) class
15、, and 345, 500 and 765 kV for the extra-high voltage (EHV) class. With the development of mercury arc valves in the early 1950s, high voltage dc (HVDC) transmission systems became economical in special situations. The HVDC transmission is attractive for transmission of large blocks of power over lon
16、g distances. The cross-over point beyond which dc transmission may become a competitive to ac transmission is around 500 kV for around 500 km for overhead lines and 50 km for underground or submarine cables. HDVC transmission also provides an asynchronous link between systems where ac interconnectio
17、n would be impractical because of system stability considerations or because nominal frequencies of the systems are different. The first modern commercial application of HVDC transmission occurred in 1954 when the Swedish mainland and the island of Gotland were interconnected by a 96 km submarine ca
18、ble. With the advent of thyristor valve converters, HVDC transmission became even more attractive. The first application of an HVDC system using thyristor values was at Eel River in 1972-a back-to-back scheme providing an asynchronous tie between the power systems of Quebec and New Brunswick. With t
19、he cost and size of conversion equipment decreasing and its reliability increasing, there has been a steady increase in the use of HVDC transmission.Interconnection of neighboring utilities usually leads to improved security results from the mutual emergency assistance that the utilities can provide
20、. Improved economy results from the need for less generating reserve capacity in each system. In addition, the interconnection permits the utilities to make economy transfers and thus take advantage of the most economical sources of power. These benefits have been recognized from the beginning and i
21、nterconnections continue to grow. Almost all the utilities in the United States and Canada are now part of one interconnected system of enormous complexity. The design of such a system and its secure operation are indeed challenging problems.STRUCTURE OF THE POWER SYSTEM Electric power system varies
22、 in size and structural components. However, they all have the same basic characteristics: Are comprised of three-phase ac systems operating essentially at constant voltage. Generation and transmission facilities use three-phase equipment. Industrial loads are invariably three-phase; single-phase re
23、sidential and commercial loads are distributed equally among the phases so as to effectively form a balanced three-phase system. Use synchronous machines for electricity. Prime movers convent the primary sources of energy (fossil, nuclear, and hydraulic) to mechanical energy that is, in turn, conver
24、ted to electrical energy by synchronous generators. Transmit power over significant distances to consumers spread over a wide area. This requires a transmission system comprising subsystems operating at different voltage levels.Figure 1.1 illustrates the basic elements of a modern power system. Elec
25、tric power is produced at generating stations (GS) and transmitted to consumers through a complex network of individual components, including transmission lines, transformers, and switching devices.It is common practice to classify the transmission network into the following subsystems:1. Transmissi
26、on system2. Subtransmission system3. Distribution systemThe transmission system interconnects all major generating stations and main load canters in the system. It forms the backbone of the integrated power system and operates at the highest voltage levels (typically, 230kV and above).The generator
27、voltage are usually in the range of 11 to 35 kV. These are stepped up to the transmission voltage levels, and power is transmitted to transmission substations where the voltage are stepped down to the subtransmission level (typically, 69 kV to 138 kV).The generation and transmission subsystems are o
28、ften referred to as the bulk power system.The subtransmission system transmits power in smaller quantities from the transmission substations to the distribution substations. Large industrial customers are commonly supplied directly from the substransmission system. In some systems, there is no clear
29、 demarcation between substransmission and transmission circuits. As the system expands and higher voltage levels become necessary for transmission, the older transmission lines are often relegated to subtransmission function.The distribution system represents the final stage in the transfer of power
30、 to the individual customers. The primary distribution voltage is typically between 4.0 kV and 34.5 kV. Small industrial customers are supplied by primary feeders at this voltage level. The secondary distribution feeders are supply residential and commercial customers at 120/240V.翻译：电力系统的演化商业用电始于19世
31、纪70年代后期，弧灯用于灯塔照明和街道照明。第一个完整的电力系统（由发电机、电缆、熔丝、电表和负荷组成）是由Thomas Edison在纽约城的Pearl Street Station建成并与1882年9月投入运行，这是一个由蒸汽发动机驱动供给1.5公里内59个用户组成的直流输电系统。负荷是包括白炽灯在内的110V供电的电缆系统。几年之内类似系统在运行在全世界大多数大城市中。随着1884年弗兰克电机的发展,电机负载计入电力系统系统。这是电力发展为世界最大产业之一的开始。尽管最初广泛使用直流系统，（但后来）几乎完全交流系统所取代。到1886年，直流系统的局限性日益突现，只能在很短的距离内从发电机
32、向外送电。为了保持功率损耗和电压降落在可接受水平，需提高电压水平以保证远距离输电。发电机和用电设备不能承受较高电压电能，因此，方便转换电压成为一种必要。由于L.Gaulard和法国巴黎的J.D.Gibbs开发了变压器和交流输电技术，由此产生了交流电力系统。George Westinghouse获得了这些新权利在美国应用的权利。在1886年，西屋的助手William Stanley开发和试验了商业实用的变压器和在Great Brrington，Massachusetts的由150个电灯组成的交流配电系统。在1889年,第一个交流输电线路在北美Oregon 的Willamette Falls 和
33、Portland之间投运。这是一个单相线传输电能为4000 V输送距离超过21公里的电力系统。随着Nikolas Tesla多相系统的建立和发展，交流系统变得更加有吸引力。到1888年，Tesla持有关于交流电动机、发电机、变压器和输电系统的若干专利。Westinghouse购买了这些早期发明专利，这些发明奠定了当今交流电力系统的基础。在19世纪90年代,关于电力工业应采用直流还是交流作为标准的相当大的争论。在主张直流的Edison和偏好交流的Westinghouse之间发生过激烈的辩论。到世纪末,交流系统战胜了直流系统,原因如下：在交流系统中容易变压，因此可以灵活地使用不同电压等级的发电机，
34、变压器和用电设备。交流发电机比直流发电机简单得多。交流电动机比直流发电机更简单，更便宜。 第一个三相12公里2300V输电线路在于1893年在北美 California南部投运。在那个时候，因为直流不能实际传输电能到30公里外的Buffalo，所以Niagara Falls选择了直流供电。这个决定结束了交流和直流争议,奠定了交流系统成功的基础。 在早期的交流输电中频率不统一。 使用许多不同平频率为：25、50、60 、125和133赫兹。这是互联的一个问题。北美最终采用60HZ为标准，尽管其他地区和国家采用50HZ。由于大量长距离输电的增长需要，创造和激励了电压水平的逐渐提高。 早期的交流系统
35、使用12、44和60kV（RMS line-to-line）。电压等级在1922年上升到165kV，1923年上升到287kV，1953年上升到330kV，1969年美国引进了765kV的高压。为了避免电压等级的无限增加，电力行业将电压等级标准化。这些高压类（HV）的标准电压等级是：115、138、161和230 kV，特高压（EHV）有345、500和765kV几个电压等级 。 随着20世纪50年代初汞弧阀发展，高电压直流传输系统变得经济。为此，高压直流输电在大面积、长距离方面很具有吸引力。在500kV500公里的架空线路和50公里的地下电缆或者海底电缆输电中，直流输电比交流输电在跨接方面具
36、有很大的竞争优势。高压直流输电也支持在因为考虑系统稳定性或者不同频率之间不能世纪联络的系实现异步互联。在1954年，第一个现代的商业用高压直流输电是通过96公里海底电缆在瑞典大陆和Gotland岛之间实现互联。随着晶闸管阀转换器出现、高压直流输电变得更有吸引力。1972年Eel河提供连续方案申请直流输电使用半导体晶闸管，方案提供了Quebec系统和New Brunswick系统之间的异步互联。随着转化设备的成本降低、体积变小和可靠性的提高，高压直流输电的使用实现了稳定增长。相邻的公用电网互联一般可以缓解不同系统间彼此紧急情况而带来的安全性问题。减少每个系统中的备用容量可以使整个方案更经济。另外
37、，互联可以使公用电网变电更具经济性，因此可以实现能源的优化配置。一开始这些利益就得到肯定，系统互联也得到推广。几乎所有的美国和加拿大现在的公用电网都是一个系统及其复杂的一部分。如此这样一个系统的设计和安全稳定运行的确是一个挑战性的问题。电力系统的结构电力系统在规模和结构都有变化，但他们都有着相同的基本特征。主要包括三相交流系统的稳定工作电压，发、输电设施使用三相设备。工业负载总是三相；单相的居民用电和商业用电在同一时期总是分散平衡的，从而有效地形成一个平衡的三相系统。使用同步发电机发电。原动机将原始能量（化石燃料，核能，液压）转化为机械能，同步发电机再将机械能转化为电能。 电力传输较大距离供大
38、面积负荷时，这样的系统需要包含不同电压等级的子系统。图1.1说明了一个现代电力系统的基本要素。电力产生于发电厂（GS），通过使用一系列独特的电网设备包括输电线路，变压器，开关设备构成的复杂网络传输给用户。 输电网络习惯分为以下几种子系统：1.输电系统2.二次系统3.配电系统输电系统互联着系统中所有的主要发电机和主要负荷中心。它构成了整个电力系统的主网架并运行在最高电压水（通常230kV及以上）。发电器电压通常是在11到35 kV范围内。这些将电压升压到输电网的电压水平，电能传输到电压水平较低的(通常是69千伏到138千伏)降压变电站。产生和传输电能的系统通常被称为大容量电力系统。 在输电系统中，一部分电能从输电变电站传输到配电变电站。工业大负荷一般都直接由输电变电站供电。在某些系统中，二次输电网和输电线路没有明确的划分。随着系统的扩展和更高电压等级输电成为必要，老输电线路往往实现二次输电网的功能。配电系统代表着电能供给个人用户的最后阶段。初次分配的电压一般在4.0千伏和34.5千伏。小型工业用户主要通过这个电压等级的配电变压器供电。120/240V的二次分配馈线供应居民用电和商业用电。